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THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF

THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS-
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE

EARLIEST TIMES

Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD

Cyrus Adler, Ph.D. {Departments of Post-
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America) .

Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D. {Department
of History from I4g2 to igoi) .

Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. {Department of
Rabbinical Literature) .

Richard Gottheil, Ph.D. {Departments of
History from Ezra to J4g2 ; History of
Post - Talmudic Literature) .

Joseph Jacobs, B.A {Departments of the
Jews of England and Anthropology ; Revi-
sing Editor) .

Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D. {Department of the Talmud).

Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. {Department of the Bible) .

Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D. {Departments of Theology
and Philosophy) .

Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D. {Chief of the
Bureau of Translation ; Revising Editor).

Isidore Singer, Ph.D. {Department of Modern
Biography from ly^o to igoi) .

Crawford H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. {Departments of
Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature) .

ISIDORE SINGER. Ph.D.

Profector and Managing Editor

ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS

(see page v)

VOLUME X

PH I LI PSON— SAM OSCZ

KTAV PUBLISHING HOUSE, INC.

N.Y. 2, N.Y.

PRINTED AND BOUND IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

VRt

LITERARY DIRECTORxVTE v./^

EDITORIAL BOARD

CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D.

(Depart merif." of I'oM-llihlUal Antiquities; the Jews of
America.)

President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian,
Smithsonian Institution, Washin(i:ton, D. C.

GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D.

(Dcpartiuad of Hii^ttiiii fiDin lUiJ-i to 1901.)

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,

Ohio ; Editor of " Deborah."

LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D.

(Department of Rahhinical Literature.)
New Yorlf ; Author of "' Die Haggada bel den Klrchenvatem."

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

(Departments of Hi~<oru from Ezra to 11*92 ; History of Post-

Talmudic Literature.)

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New Yorl£;

Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ;

President of the Federation of American Zionists.

JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A.

(Departments of the Jews of EnghDid and Anthropology;
Revising Editor.)

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ;
Author of "Jews of Anurevin England," etc.

MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D.

(Department of the Talmud.)
Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel-
phia, Pa. ; Author of " Dictionary of the Talmud."

MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D.

KDepartmeid of the Bihlc.)

Professor of SemUlc Languages and Librarian In the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of "Relig-
ion of the Babylonians and Assyrians," etc.

KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D.

(Departments of Theology and Philosophy.)

Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York ; President of the Board of
Jewish Ministers, New York.

FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D.

(Chief of the Bureau of Trandation; Revising Editor.)

Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York ; Vice-President

of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York.

ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D.

Ma.xaci.ng Editor.
(Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1901.)

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D.

(Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic

Literature.)

Professor of Hebrew In Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ;

Author of " The Religion of Israel," " Judaism and

Christianity," etc.

AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish
Theological Seminary, New York.

B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago ; Author of " A
Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language."

GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.,

Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-EI, New York.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 111.; Professor of

Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of

Chicago ; Editor of the " Reform Advocate."

HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D.,

Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures,
Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.

J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto,

Canada; Author of " History, I>rophecy, and

the Monuments."

H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D.,

Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu-
guese), New York ; President of the Advisory Board of
Ministers of the Jewish Theological Seminary.

MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Talmudic Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio ; Author of " Introduction to the Talmud."

GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Literature and President of

Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass.; Author

of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, etc.

DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D.,

Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel ; Professor of Homiletics,

Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio ; President of

Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America.

IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature, University of

Chicago, 111. ; Author of " The Monuments and

the Old Testament," etc.

LITERARY DIRECTORATE

HERMAN ROSENTHAL,

CHIET or TUK ULSSlAN StCTION Or TUK JEWISH ENCTCLO-

P£DIA.

In charve of Slavonic Department, New York Public Library.

JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D.,

President of Ceniral Conference of American Rabbis ; Rabbi of
Temple Emanu-El, New York.

JACOB VOORS ANGER, D.D,,

Rabbi of the Con(?reRatlon Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal. ;
feasor of Semitic Languaj^es and Literatures, Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal.

EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A.,

Editor of " The Uterary Digest," New York.

Pro

FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.,

Coedltor of the " Jewish Quarterly Review " ; Author of "Jew-
ish Life In the Middle Ages," etc. ; Senior Tutor
In Jews' College, Loudon, England.

W. BACHER, Ph.D.,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest,
Hungary.

M. BRANN, Ph.D.,

Profcaror Id the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger-
many ; Editor of " Monatsscbrift fur Geschlchte und
Wlssenschaft des Judeuthums."

H. BRODY, Ph.D.,

R&bbU Nachod, Bohemia, Austria ; Coedltor of "Zeltschrift fiir
Hebralsche Bibliographic."

ABRAHAM DANON,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople,

Turkey.

HARTWIG DERENBOTJRG, Ph.D.,

Profeasor of Literary Arabic at the Special School of Oriental
Lanifuages, Paris, France ; Member of the French Institute.

S. M. DUBNOW,

Author of " istoriya Yevreyev," Odessa, Russia.

MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D.,

Principal of Jews' College, London, England; Author of "The

Jewish Religion," etc.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D.,

Professor of s<-mitlc Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary.

M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria.

BARON DAVID GUNZBURG,

St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. HARKAVY, Ph.D.,

Chief of the Hebrew Uepiirtmeut of the Imperial Public Library,
St. Petersburg, Russia.

ZADOC KAHN,

Chief Rabbi of France ; Honorary President of the Alliance

Israelite Unlverselle ; Officer of the Legion

of Honor, Paris, France.

M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D.,

Babbl, Budapest, Hungary ; Corresponding Member of the

Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain.

MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D.,

Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin ; Meran,

A ustria.

ANATOLE LEROY-BEATJLIETJ,

Member of the French Institute : Professor at the Free School

of Political Science, Paris, France ; Author of

" Israel chez les Nations."

ISRAEL LEVI,

Professor In the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of
" Revue des Etudes Julves," Paris, France.

ETJDE LOLLI, D.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Padua ; Professor of Hebrew at the University,
Padua, Italy.

IMMANTJEL LOW, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi of Szegedln, Hungary ; Author of " Die Aramaischen

Pflanzennamen."

S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D.,

Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Chief Rabbi of
Florence, Italy.

H. OORT, D.D,,

Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State
University, Leyden. Holland.

ABBE PIETRO PERREAXT,

Formerly Librarian of the Reale Blblloteca Palatlna, Parma,

Italy.

MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D.,

Formerly Professor of HisUjry at the Universities of Bonn and

Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Judlsche

Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany.

SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D.,

Rabbi In Warsaw, Russia.

SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D.,

Professor of Hebrew, University College, London, England;

Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge;

Author of "Studies In Judaism "

E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D.,

Secretary -General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris,

France.

LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D.,

Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor
of " Archlv fiir Geschlchte der Phllosophle," etc.

HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages,
University of Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D.,

Master of St. John's College, Cambridge, England ; Editor of
" Sayings of the Jewish Fathers," etc.

CONTIUBUTORS TO VOLUME X

A Cyrus Adler, Ph.D.,

I'residfnl of ilif Aiiicricaii Jewisli Historical
Society: I'lvsidciU otitic BoarU of Directors
of the Jewisli Tlieologiciil .Seminary of Amer-
ica ; Assistant Secretary of the Smitlisonian
Institution, Washington, D. C.

A. Bii Alexandei- Buchler, Ph.D.,

Hablii, Kcszlhely, lliintJraiy.

A. Co A. Cowley, M.A.,

oiieiiuil Suhlibrarian, Bodleian Library, O.x-
ford University, Oxford, Encland.

A. E A. Eckstein, Ph.D.,

Uuljbi, I5aml>crK, Bavaria, Germany.

A. F A. Freimann, Ph.D.,

Editoi' of the " Zcitschrift fiir Hebraische
BiblioM:raphie " ; Librarian of the Hebrew De-
partment, Stadtbibliotlick, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Germany.

A. G Adolf Guttmacher, Ph.D.,

Rabl)i, Baltimore Hebiew ConRregation, Bal-
timore, Md.

A. Go A. Gornfeld,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.

A. Ki Alexander Kisch, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Meysel Syuagoge, Prague, Bohemia,
Austria.

A. M. F Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

A. P A. Porter,

Formerly Associate Editor of "The Forum,"
New York ; Revising Editor "Standard Cyclo-
pedia" ; New York City.

A. Pe A. Peig-insky, Ph.D.,

New York City.

A. S. I Abram S. Isaacs, Ph.D.,

Professor of (icrman Language and Litera-
ture, University Graduate Seminary, New
York City ; Rabbi, B'nai Jeshurun Congrega-
tion, Paterson, N. J.

A. S. W A. S. Waldstein, B.A.,

New York City.

A. Ta Aaron Tanzer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Hohenems, Tyrt)l, Austria.

A. W Albert Wolf,

Dresden, Sa.xony, (iermany.

S. Ei Benzion Eisenstadt,

Teacher, New York City.

B.'Fr Bernhard Friedberg-,

l"rankfoit-on-tlie-Main, Germany.

B. Qr Bernhard Greenfelder,

St. Louis, Mo.

B. P Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D.,

Pastor of St. John's Lutheran Church, New-
ark, N. J.

C. A. R C. A. Rubenstein,

Rabbi, Har Sinai Temple, Baltimore, Md.

C. I. de S... Clarence I. de Sola,

President of the Federation of Canadian Zion-
ists ; Belgian Consul, Montreal, Canada.

C. L Caspar Levias, M.A.,

Instructor in Exegesis and Talmudic Aramaic,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

C S Carl Sieg-fried, Ph.D., LLi.D. (deceased).

Late Professor of Theology at the University
of Jena. (;erraany.

D Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D.,

Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union
College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

D. L David Leimddrfer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Hamburg, Germany.

D. M. H D. M. Hermalin,

Editor of tlu( "Daily Jewish Herald" and
" Volksadvocat," New York City ; Brooklyn,
N". Y.

D. P David Philipson, D.D.,

Rabbi, B'ne Israel Congregation; Professor of
Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincin-
nati, Ohio.

D. Su. David Sulzberg-er,

Philadelphia, Pa.

E. C Executive Committee of the Editorial

Board.

E. G. H EmilG. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Rabbi, Sinai Congregation ; Professor of Rab-
binical Literature and Philosophy, University
of Chicago ; Chicago, 111.

E. J Emil Jelinek,

Vienna. Austria.

E. K Eduard Kbnig', Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of old Testament Exegesis, Univer-
sity of Bonn, (ienuany.

E. M. E Ezekiel Moses Ezekiel,

Bombay, India.

E. Ms Edg'ar Mels,

New York City.

E. N Eduard Neumann, Ph.D.,

Chief Itabbi, Nagy-Kanisza, Hungary.

E.N. S Elvira N. Solis,

New York City.

E. So Emil Schlesing-er, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, St. (iallen. Switzerland.

E. Schr E. Schreiber, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Eiiianu-El Congregation, Chicago, III.

E. SI E. Slijper, Ph.D.,

Leydeii, Holland.

F. C Frank Cramer, B.Sc,

New York City.

F. H. V Frank H. Vizetelly, F.S.A.,

Associate Editt)r of the "Columbian Cyclo-
pedia " and of the SrAXDARD Dictionary ;
New Y'ork City.

F. J. B Frederick J. Bliss. Ph.D.,

New Y'ork City.

F. L. C Francis L. Cohen,

Chief Minister, Sydney, N. S. W., Australia.

F. S Flaminio Servl (deceased).

Late Chief Rahbi of Casale Monferrato. Italy ;
Editor of "11 Vessillo Israelitico."

F. T. H Frederick T. Haneman, M.D.,

Brooklyn, N. Y.

G Richard Gottheil, Ph.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia
University, New York; Chief of the Oriental
Department, New York Public Library; New
York City.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME X

G. A. B George A. Barton, Ph.D.,

rrvtt-?s.r vl BU>lii-iil Literaiure and Semitic
LanpuaRvs, Brvn Mawr I oIleKe, Bryn Mawr,
Pa.

G. D. R ...George D. Rosenthal,

l:;if»tni-ul Kiis-'iiiitT. St. l.ouis. Mo.

G. F. M George F. Moore, M.A., D.D.,

Pn>K-ss<ir of l«iblic-al Liit-nitiire and tlie His-
tory of IJt'lifrions, Harvard Iniversity, Caiii-
tirldkr>'. M;iss.

G. H. C G. Herbert Cone,

counselor at Law, .\lbany, N. Y.

G. L Goodman liipkind. B. A.,

Knl'iii. .Ni'W Voik (, iiy.

H. B H. Brody, Ph.D.,

KiiMii ; t'oeditor of the "Zeitschrift fiir He-
braic be Bibliosrraphie"; Naeliod, Bohemia,
.\ustria.

H. F Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D.,

Fonm-rly siiperimendeiu of tlit' l)epartment of
Manu.vTipts, Library of Coiifiress, Washinsr-
ton, D.C; necordiiigSecrelaryof thf.\iiH'rican
Jcwiish Historical Society. IMiiladelphia, Pa.

H. Fr Harry Friedenwald, M.D.,

I'loffssur of oplitlmlmoluffy and Otology, Col-
lege of I'hysiciaiis aud Surgeons, Baltimore,
Md.

H. G. F H. G. Friedmann, B. A.,

.\fu York City.

H. M Henry Malter, Ph.D.,

Profcs-sor of Talmud and Instructor in Judaeo-
Arabic Philosophy, Hebrew Union College,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

H. M. H Henry Minor Huxley, A.M.,

Formerly .\ssistaiit I'rofessor ol Anthropology
ut Harviinl I'liiversily ; Worcester, Mass.

H. R Herman Rosenthal,

Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New
York Public Library, New York City.

H. S Henrietta Szold,

Secretary of the Publication Committee of the
Jewish Publication Society of America, New
Y'ork City.

H. V Hermann Vog'elstein, Ph.D.,

Itabbi. Kiinig.sberg, East I'russia, Germany.

I. B Isaac Bloch,

( liii-f llabbi, Nancy, France.

I. Be Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D.,

Professor of t )ld 'lestament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Berlin, Germany; Jerusalem, Pal-
estine.

I. Ber Israel Berlin,

ciiemist, .New Y'ork City.

I. Br Isaac Broyde' (Office Editor),

UiK'torof the University of I'aris, France; for-
merly Librarian of the Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle, Paris, France ; New Y'ork City.

I. Bro I. Brock,

T'-acher, Roga.sen, Posen, Germany.

I. Co Israel Cohen,

l.oiidoii. Eiiglariii.

ID Israel Davidson, Ph.D.,

S'-iniiic .Scholar ancl Author, New York City.

I- E Ismar Elbogren, Ph.D.,

Professor of History at the Lehranstalt fiir
die Wls.sens(haft drs Judenthums, Berlin, Ger-
many.

I- G- D I. George Dobsevage,

New York ( Ity.
I- H Isidore Harris, A.M.,

Kabbi, West Loudon Synagogue, London,

England.
I. L. B I. L. Bril,

As.«ociate Editor of " The American Hebrew,"

New York f itv.

I. Lb ImmanueHibw, Ph.D.,

I bief Kabbi, Szegedin, Hungary.
I. M. C I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D.,

tniied states National Museum, Washington,
11. C.

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., L.L.D.,

Profes.sor of Seuulic Languages and Litera-
tiM-e, University of Chicago. Chicago, 111.

I. War Isidor Warsa-w,

Kalilil, Woodville. Mi.<s.

J Joseph Jacobs, B.A.,

Formerly President of the Jewish Historical
Society of England ; Corresponding Member
of the lioyal Academy of History, Madrid;
New Y'ork City.

J. Br J. Brennsohn, Ph.D.,

Milau, Courhimi. Iius>ia.

J. D. E Judah David Eisenstein,

Author, New York City.

J. F Julius Frank,

Rabbi, olieb Shalom Reform Congregation,
Ucading, Pa.

J. F. McC.J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages, University
College, Toronto, Canada.

J. F. McL...J. F. McLaughlin, M.A., B. D.,

Professor of Oriental Languages and Litera-
ture, Victoria College, Toronto, Caiuida.

J. G. L, J. G. Lipman, Ph.D.,

.\ssistaiu Agritulturist. New Jersey State Ex-
periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J.

J. Go Julius Gottlieb, M.A., Ph.D.,

New York City.
J. H J. Hessen,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.

J. de H J. de Haas,

Journalist, New Y'ork City.

J. H. G Julius H. Greenstone,

Rabbi. Philadelphia, Pa.

J. H. Ho J. H. Hollander, Ph.D.,

.Assistant Professor of Political Economy,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Md.

J. Ka Jacques Kahrl^

Rabt)i, Paris, France.

J. Leb Joseph Lebovich,

Ilar\ard University, Cambridge, Mass.

J. Li. Li J. Leonard Levy, Ph.D.,

Rabhl, Rodeph Shalom Congregation, Pitts-
burgh, Pa.

J. L. La J. L. Lait,

Joiu-nalist, Chicago, 111.

J. M. M Jonas M. Myers,

Rabiii, i!risi)aiie, Queensland, Australia.

J. Re J. Reach, Ph.D.,

Ualihi. Kaudnitz, Bohemia, Austria.

J. So Joseph Sohn,

Contributor to "The New International En-
cyclopedia " : formerly Musical Critic on the
New Y'ork " American and Journal" ; New
York City.

J. S. R J. S. Raisin,

Rabbi, (ieuiilut Chesed Congregation, Fort
Gibson, Miss.

J. Sto Joseph Stolz, D.D.,

Kabhi, Isaiah Temple, Chicago, 111.

J. Ta Jacob Tauber, Ph.D.,

Kalibi. I'n-iau, Moravia, -Austria.

J. Z. L Jacob Zallel Lauterbach, Ph.D. (Office

Editor),
Rabbi. New York City.

K Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D.,

Rablii Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New
Y'ork ; President of the Hebrew Union Col-
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio.

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME X

Vll

L. A. R LiUdwig: A. Rosenthal,

i;;ilil>i, Kni.'ii.st'n, I'l'scii. (iennany.

li. B Liudwig- Blau, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Tlieolopical Seminary ; Edi-
tor of " Magyar Zsidrt Szemle " ; Budapest,
Hunpary.

L. Q Louis Ginzbergr, Ph.D.,

Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem-
inary of America, New Yorli City.

L,. H. G Louis H. Gray, Ph.D.,

Assistant Kditor of the " Orientali.sche Blbllo-
graphle"; formerly on the editorial staff of
"The New International Encyclopedia";
Newark, N. J.

L. Hii L. Hiihner, A.M., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

L. Lew Louis Lewin, Ph.D.,

Kabbi, Piniie, Posen, (iermany.

L. N. D Lewis N. Dembitz, D.H.L.,

Counselor at Law. Louisville. Ky.

L. V Ludwig- Venetianer, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Ujpest, Hungary.

L. Wy L. "Wygrodsky,

Journalist. St. Petersburg, Russia.

M. Bu Moses Buttenwieser, Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor of Exegesis, Hebrew Union
College. Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. Co Max Cohen,

Counselor at Law, New York City.

M. Fr M. Franco,

Principal. Alliance Israelite Universelle
School. Demotica, Rumelia, Turkey.

M. Gr M. Grunwald, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Israelitische Kultus-Gemeinde, Vienna :
Editor of the " Mitteilungen zur Jiidischen
Volkskunde" ; Vienna, Austria..

M. H. H M. H. Harris, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Temple Israel of Harlem, New York
City.

M. J. K Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B.,

Counselor at Law ; Corresponding Secretary
of the American Jewish Historical Society,
New York City.

M. K Meyer Kay serling-, Ph.D.,

i;abbi. Budapest, Huntrary.

M. Lan Max Landsberg, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Berith Kodesh Congregation, Roches-
ter, N. Y.

M. L. B Moses Lob Bamberger, Ph.D.,

Uabbi ; Lecturer in Rabbinic, Jewish Semi-
nary, Wurzburg, Bayaria, Germany.

M. Lib Morris Liber,

Kabbi. Paris, France.
M. Mr M. Margrel, Ph.D.,

Rabbi. Pozega, blavonia, Austria.
M. My M. Mysh,

Counselor at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia.
M. R Max Rosenthal, M.D.,

Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New

York City.

M. So Max Schloessinger, Ph.D. ,

Librarian ami Lecturer on Biblical Exegesis,
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio.

M. Sch M. Schorr, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Leiiibcrp, Galicia, Austria.

M. Schl Max Schlesinger, Ph.D.,

Ratibi, Beth Emeth Congregation, Albany,
N. Y.

M. Sel Max Selig-sohn (Office Editor),

Doctor of the University of Paris, France;
New York City.

M. Sz Moritz Schwarz, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Raab, Hungary.

M. W. M Mary W. Montg-omery, Ph.D.,

New York ( ity.

P. Wi Peter Wiernik,

Journalist, New York City.

R. H. K Rosa H. Knorr,

New Y'ork City.

R. Ka. R. Kalter, Ph.D. ,

Rabbi, Potsdam, Prussia. Germany.

R. N Regina Neisser,

Author, Hreslau. Silesia, Germany.

R. P Rosalie Perles,

Author, Konlgsberg, East Prussia, Germany.

S Isidore Singer, Ph.D.,

Managing Editor. New York City.

S. F S. Funk, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, Boskowitz, Moravia, Austria.

S. Fu Samuel Fuchs, Ph.D.,

Chief Rabbi, Luxemburg. Luxemburg.

S. G S. Gundelfinger. Ph.D.,

Darmstadt, (iermany.

S. H. L Sylvan H. Lauchheimer,

Counselor at Law, New York City,

S. Hu S. Hurwitz,

New York City.

S. J. L S. J. Levinson,

Brooklyn, N. T.

S. K S.Kahn,

Rabbi, Nimes, France.

S. Kr Samuel Krauss, Ph.D.,

Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary.

S. M S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D. ,

Rabbi. Temple of Israel, Wilmington, N. C.

S. Man S. Mannheimer, B.L.,

Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

S. O Schulim Ochser, Ph.D.,

Rabbi, New Y'ork City.

S. S Solomon Schechter, M.A.. Litt.D., "

President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theo-
logical Seminary of America, New York City.

T Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D..

Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University,
Cambridge. Mass.

U. C Umberto Cassuto,

Editor of " La Rivista Israelitica," Florence,
Italy.

v. E Victor Rousseau Emanuel,

Laurel, Md.

■y. R Vasili Rosenthal,

Krenientchug, Russia.

"W. B Wilhelm Bacher, Ph.D.,

Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda-
pest, Hungary.

W. M. M....W. Max Miiller, Ph.D.,

Professor of Bible E.xegesis, Reformed Episco-
pal Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.

W. N Wilhelm Nowack, Ph.D.,

Professor of old Testament Exegesis, Uni-
versity of Slrasburg, Germany.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

N. B. — la the following list subjects likely to be sought for under varioiis headings are repeated
under each heading. Cross-references in this list are to oilier items in the list, not to articles in
the Encyclopedia.

PAGE

Altneuschule, Exterior and Interior Views of the, at Prague 156-158

America: see Kichmond.

Amsterdam, Interior of a Synagogue at. From an etching by Rembrandt 374

Purim Ceremonies in the Synagogue at, 1731 jj^rtie between 280-281

Arch of Octavian, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at Rome 449

Archeology: see Coins; Inscription; PiERi.EONr; Pottery; Prague; Rachel; Rome.
Architecture: see Prague; Rasiii Chapel ; Rome; Rothschild "Stammhaus"; Synagogues.

Ark of the Law in the Castilian Synagogue at Rome 452

in the Syuagoga dos Templos at Rome 454

in the Synagogue at Konigliche Weinberge, near Prague 160

Arms of the Rapoport Family 320

Art: see Archeology; Architecture; Chairs; Phylacteries; Prague; Pulpit; Purim; Rings;

Typography.
Austria : see Prague.

Baer, Seligman, Page from the Siddur Edited by, Rodelheim, 1868 177

Bassevi House, Court of the, Prague 161

Betrothal Rings 428, 429

Bible, Hebrew, Page from the, Printed at Riva di Treuto, 1561 432

see also Plan.

Marriage Rings 428, 429

Midrash Tehillim, Title-Page from, Prague, 1613 249

Music : " Rahem na ' Alaw " 810

Musical Instruments : see Pipes.

Naples, Censored Page from Hebrew Psalms with Klmhi's Commentary, Printed in 1487 at 247

New York, Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-Book, Printed in 1766 at 55

Octavian, Arch of, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at Rome 449

Pale of Settlement, Map of Western Russia Showing the Jewish 531

Palestine, Map Showing the Road System of 435

see also Pottery; Safed ; Samaria; Samaritans.

PJiillips, Henry Mayer, American Lawyer and Politician 4

Jonas, American Revolutionary Patriot 4

Pliylacteries and Bags 21, 22, 25, 26

and Tlieir Arrangement on Head and Arm 24

Picart, Bernard, Title-Page from the " Tikkun Soferim," Designed by 29

Pierleoni, Tomb of, in the Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome 33

Pinsker, Lev, Russian Physician 52

Pinto, Isaac, TitlePage from His Translation of the Prayer-Book, Printed at New York, 1766 55

Pipes in Use in Palestine 57

Pisa, Old Tombstones from the .Jewi.sh Cemetery at 61

Pithom-Heroopolis, Map of 63

Plagues, Tlio Ten, According to a Passover Haggadah of 1695 71

Plan of the City of Prague in 1649, Showing Position of Jewish Quarter 153

of the Ghetto at Rome, 1640 447

Platea Judaea of the Old Ghetto at Rome 448

Poltava, Russia, Synagogue at 119

Ponte, Lorenzo da, Italian-American Man of Letters 124

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

Portraits: sec

run. I. IPS, Hf.xkv Mavkk.
I'Hii.i.ii's, Jonas.

PINSKKR, LK\ .
I'ONTE, LORK.NZO DA.
I'OSSART, ER.NST V0.\.

Haiibinovicz, Raphaki..
Hahinovicii, Osip.
Hakinowitz, HiKscii.

RAPOPORT, SOLO.MON LOb.

UKfUiio, Isaac Samiki..
Ukikma.n. .Iacoh.

IlKI.A.Nl), ADRIAN.

IliCARDo, David.
Kick, Abraham.

RiKSSKR, (iAHRIKl,.

RoTiisciiii.D, Baron Alphonsk.

ROTH.SCllII.D, Haron Ja.mks.
RoTHSfiiiLD, Baron Lionkl Nathan.

ROTHSCIIll.D. MaYKR AMSCHEL.

HoTnscHii.D, Nathan Maykr.
Rothschild, Nathamki., Lord.
Rubinstein, Anton.
Sachs, Michael.
Sachs, senior.
Ralant, Sa.MI'EL.
Salomon, Go'tthold.
Salo.mons, Sir Uavid.

PAGE

Portsmouth, England, Interior of Synagogue at 135

Possart, Ernst vou, German Actor and Author 146

Pottery Discovered in Palestine 148, 149

Prague, Altneusclniie at, E.xterior and Interior Views of the 106-158

Court of the Bassevi Hou.se at 161

Exodus of Jews from, 174."i 155

Gild-Cup of the Jewi.sh Shoemakers of, Eighteenth Century 156

Interior of the Synagogue at Koiiigliche Weiuberge, near 160

Jewish Butcher of, Eighteenth Century 156

Jewish Cemetery on Josefstrasse 162

Plan of the City of, in 1649, Showing Position of Jcswisli Quarter 153

Procession of Jews of, in Honor of the Birthday of Archduke Leopold, i\Iay 17, 1716 154

Purim Players at. Early Eighteenth Century 276

TJabbiner Gassc 162

Shames Gasse 163

Tombstones in tlie Old Jewish Cemetery at 165

Wechsler Gasse Synagogue 159

Typography : Page from the First Illustrated Printed Haggadah, 1526 167

Title-Page from Midrash Tchillim, 1613 249

Prayer-Book : Colophon Page of the Siddur Rab Amram, Written in 1506 at Trani 173

Illuminated First Page of a Siddur, Written by Abraham Farissol. Ferrara, 1528 175

Karaite Siddur, Budapest, 1903 179

Page from the Baer Siddur, Rodelheim, 1868 177

— Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the, New York, 1766 55

Presburg, Host Desecration at, 1591 188

Visit of King Ferdinand to a Jewish School at, 1830 189

Printer's Mark of Abraham Usciue, Ferrara 202

of Antonio Giustiano, Venice 202

of the Bragadini, Venice 202

of Cavalli, Venice 203

of Gad ben Isaac Foa, Venice 203

of Gersonides, Prague 203

of Isaac ben Aarcm of Prossuitz, Cracow 200. 202

of Jacob ]\[ercuria, Riva di Trento 202

of Judah Lob ben Moses, Prague 203

■ of Meir ben Jacob Firenze 203

■ of Mo.ses and Mordecal Kohen 203

of Paul Fagius, Isny 202

of Solomon Proops, Amsterdam 203

of Soncino, Rimini 202

of Tobiali Foa, Sabbionetta 203

of Zalman, Amsterdam 203

Procession of Jews of Prague in Honor of the Birthday of Archduke Leopold, May 17, 1710 154

Proops, Solomon, of Amsterdam, Printer's ^laik of . . . 203

P.salms, Censored Page from Hebrew, with Kind.ii's Commentary, Naples, 1487 247

Page from Polyglot, Genoa, 1516 243

Title-Page from Midrash to, Prague, 1613 249

Pulpit from a Synagogue at Modena, Early Si.xteenth Century. 268

Interior of Synagogue Sliowiiig the. From a fourteenth-century manuscript 267

xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X

PAGE

Piiiim CiTfinonies in tlit- Syiuigogiie at AiiiMeiilani, 1781 plate betireen 28U-281

Hmnau Klopfei-s " Used by Jewisli ( 'liildren of Russia tm 276

Observance of. in a German Synagoirue of the EigliteenUi Century 277

Players. From Leusdeu. 1657 276

at Praeuc Early Eighteenth Century 376

Queensland : sec Hhimiank.

Rabbiner Gasse, Pmgue 162

Rabliinovicz, Raphael. Talniudical Scholar 298

Rabinovich, Osip. I{ussian Author and Journalist 301

Rabinowitz, Hirsch, Russian Scientist and Publicist 303

Rachel. Traditi.nial Tomb of 306

-Rahem na Alaw." Mu.sic of 310

Rapoport Family, Arms of 320

Solomon LOb, Austrian Rabbi antl Scholar 322

Rashi, Colophon of the First Edition of the Commentary on the Pentateuch by, the First Dated Hebrew

Book, 1475 329

Chapel at Worms 324

Chair in the 327

Cross-Section of the 326

Interior of the 325

Ratisbon, Interior of the Old Synagogue at 330

Raziel. Sepher, Page from the, Amsterdam, 1701 336

Reggio, Colophon Page from the First Edition of Rashi on tlie Pentateuch, the First Dated Hebrew-
Book, Printed in 1475 at 339

Isaac Samuel, Austro-Italian Scholar and Rabbi 360

Reifman, Jacob, Russian Hebrew Author 366

Reland, Adrian, Dutch Christian Hebraist. ... 369

Rembrandt, Interior of a Synagogue at Amsterdam, from an Etching by 374

Jewish Beggar, from an Etching by 371

Portraits of Seventeenth-Century Jews, Painted by 372, 373, and Frontispiece

Ricardo, David, English Political Economist 402

Rice, Abraham, American Rabbi 405

Richmond. Va., Synagogue at 407

Riesser, Gabriel, German Advocate of Jewish Emancipation 410

Riga, Russia, Synagogue at 417

Rings, Jewish Betrothal and Marriage 428, 429

Riva di Trento, Page from Hebrew Bible Printed in 1561 at 433

Road System of Palestine, Map of the 485

Rodenberg, Julius, German Poet and Author 439

Rome, Arch of Octavian, the Entrance to the Old Ghetto at 449

Ark of the Law in the Synagoga dos Templos at 454

Arks of the Law in the Castilian Synagogue at 452

Chair of Elijah in a Si'nagogue at 458

Entrance to the Ancient Catacombs at 447

Entrance to the Ghetto at, About 1850 462

Exterior and Interior Views of the New Synagogue at 464, 465

" Five Synagogues " of the Old Ghetto at 451

Nook in the Old Ghetto at 460

Plan of the Ghetto at, 1640 446

Platea Juda-a of the Old Ghetto at 448

Rabbis' Chairs in Synagogues at 456, 457

Rua Via in, Showing Entrance to the Old Talmud Torah 461

Tomb of Pierleoni in the Cloisters of St. Paul at 33

Rothschild, Baron Alphonse, Present Head of the French House 498

Baron James, Founder of the French House 501

Baron Lionel Nathan, Financier and First Jewish Member of English Parliament 501

Mayer Amschel, Founder of the Roth.schild Family 490

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME X xiii

PAGE

Uotlischild, Nathan Mayer, Fouudcr of the English House 494

" A PillMi- of the Exchange. " From an old print 496

Nathaniel, Lord, Present Head of English House 503

" Staninihaus, " Frankforl-ou-the-Main 490

Rubinstein, Anton, l{ussian Pianist and Composer 507

Russia, Map of Western, Showing the Jewisli Pale of Settlement 531

Polish Coins of the Middle Ages, with Hebrew Characters 562, 563

see also Poltava ; Rkja ; Saint Pktkhsiuim;.

Sabbath, Device for Keeping Water and Food Warm on 594

Eve Ceremonies in a German Jewish Home of the Eighteenth Century 593

Light, Candlestick Used in Blessing tlie .591

Sachs, Michael, German Rabbi 613

Senior, Russian Hebraist 614

Sacrifice, Samaritan Place of 673

Safed, View of the Jewish Quarter at 634

Saint Petersburg, Russia, Synagogue at 641

Views of the Old and Modern Cemeteries at 643, 645

Salant, Samuel, Jerusalem Rabbi 647

Salomon, Gotthold, German Rabbi 653

Salomons, Sir David, English Politician and Communal Worker 656

Salonica, Group of Jews of 658

Scene in the Old Jewish Quarter at 657

Samarcand, High Street in Old, Showing the Ghetto 667

Jewess of 668

Samaria, View of, from the Southeast 669

Samaritan Characters, Ancient Inscription in 670

Place of Sacrifice 673

Samaritans at Prayer 674

Groups of 672, 678

Shames Gasse, Prague 163

Siddur: see Prayer-Book.

Solomon, So-Called Coin of 203

Soncino, Printer's Mark of 203

Synagogues: see Amsterdam; Brisbane; Poltava; Portsmouth; Prague; Richmond; Riga;

Rome; Saint Petersburg.
see also Pulpit ; Purim ; Rashi Chapel.

TefiUin and Bags 21--36

Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-Book, New York, 1766 55

from Midrash Tehillira, Prague, 1613 249

from the "Tikkun Soferim," Designed by Bernard Picart 29

Tomb of Pierleoni in the Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome 33

of Rachel, Traditional 306

Tombstones from the Old Jewish Cemetery at Pisa 61

from the Old Jewish Cemetery at Prague 165

Types: see Salonica; Samarcand; Samaritans.

Typography: see Genoa; Naples; New York; Picart: Prague; Printer's Mark; Raztel; Reggio.

TTsque, Abraham, Printer's Mark of 202

Worms, Exterior, Interior, and Cros.s-Sectional Views of tlie Rashi Chapel at 324-326

Zalman of Amsterdam, Printer's Mark of 203

THE

Jewish Encyclopedia

PHILIPSON, DAVID : American rabbi ; born
at Wabasli, lud., Aug. 9, 1862; educated at the
public scliools of Columbus, Ohio, tlie Hebrew
Union College of Cincinnati (graduated 1883; D.D.
1886), the University of Cincinnati (B.A. 1883), and
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. On Jan.

1, 1884, he became rabbi of the Har Sinai congrega-
tion at Baltimore, Md., -which position he held until
Nov. 1, 1888, when he became rabbi of the B'ne
Israel congregation of Cincinnati. He is also pro-
fessor of homiletics at the Hebrew Union College.

Philipson has held many offices of a public nature
in Cincinnati. He has been a trustee of the Asso-
ciated Charities (since 1890) ; trustee of the Home
for Incurables (1894-1902); director of the Ohio
Humane Society (since 1889) and of the United Jewish
Charities (since 1896); corresponding secretary of
the Central Conference of American Rabbis (1889-
1892; 1894-98), and director of the same society
(since 1898); governor of the Hebrew Union College
(since 1892); director of the American Jewish His-
torical Society (since 1897) ; member of the publica-
tion committee of the Jewish Publication Society
(since 1895); and president of the Hebrew Sabbath
School Union of America (since 1894).

He is the author of "Progress of the Jewish Re-
form Movement in the United States," in "J. Q.
R." X. (1897) 52-99; and "The Beginnings of the
Reform Movement in Judaism," ib. xv. (1903) 575-
621 ; " The Jew in English Fiction," Cincinnati, 1889
(revised and enlarged, 1902) ; " Old European Jew-
ries," Philadelphia, 1894; "The Oldest Jewi.sh Con-
gregation in the West," Cincinnati, 1894; "A Holiday
Sheaf," ih. 1899; and, jointly with Louis Grossman,
he has edited " Reminiscences of Isaac M. Wise," ib.
1901.

A. F. T. H.

PHILISTINES : A people that occupied terri-
tory on the coast of the ^Mediterranean Sea, south-
west of Jerusalem, previouslj' to and contemporane-
ously with the life of the kingdoms of Israel. Their
northern boundary reached to the " borders of Ekron, "
and their southwestern limit was the Shiiior, or brook
of Egypt (Wadi al-'xVrish), as described in Josh. xiii.

2, 3. Their territory extended on the east to about
Beth-shemesh (I Sam. vi. 18), and on the west to the
sea. It was a wide, fertile plain stretching up to the
Judean hills, and adapted to a very productive
agriculture.

X.— 1

In Biblical times this territory was occupied by
several peoples, the most prominent of all being the
I'hilistines proper. There are found the giants or
Anakim in Joshua's day and even down to David's
time in Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. It must be con-
cluded, too, from Joshua's conquests that the Ca-
naanites were to be met with here and there through-
out tliis territory. It is also to be
Territory, presumed from the records that other
peoples, such as the Amalekites and
the Geshurites, lived near this territory if they did
not actually mingle with the Philistines.

Who were the Philistines proper? The Biblical
record states that they came from Caphtor (Amos
ix. 7; Deut. ii. 23), that they were Caphtorim (Dent.
I.e.), and that they were "the remnant of the sea-
coast of Caphtor" (Jer. xlvii. 4, Hebr.). The table
of nations (Gen. x. 13, 14) names the Philistines and
the Caphtorim as descendants of Mizraim. The
gist of these references leads one to look for
Caphtor as the native land of the Philistines. There
is a variety of opinion as to the location of this place.
The Egj'ptian inscriptions name the southern coast
of Asia Minor as " Kef to." The latest and with some
plausibility the best identification is the island of
Crete. The Septuagint makes the Cherethites in
David's body-guard Cretans. Others have identified
Caphtor with Cappadocia, or Cyprus, or with some
place near the Egyptian delta. The prevailing
opinion among scholars is that the Philistines were
roving jurates from some northern coast on the
Mediterranean Sea. Finding a fertile plain south of
Joppa, tliey landed and forced a foothold. Their
settlement was made by such a gradual process that
they adopted both the language and the religion of
the conquered jieojiles.

When did the Philistines migrate and seize their
territory in this maritime plain V The inscriptions of
Rameses III., about Joshua's da}', de-
Origin, scribe sea-peoples wliom he met in
conflict. Among these foreigners are
found the Zakkal from Cyprus, and the Purusati
(Pulusata, Pulista, or Purosatha). Both liave Greek
features; and the second are identified with the
Philistines. In the inscription of this Egyptian
king, they are said to have conquered all of north-
ern Syria west of the Euphrates. It is known, too,
that the successors of Rameses III. lost their Syrian
possessions. It is supposed that during this period

Philistines
Phillips

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tlje Purusati, accompanied by their families, were
pushed or crowded out of their homes by the uational
migrations from the northeast in Asia Minor, and,
coming both by hiud and by sea, secured a foothold in
southwestern Palestine. The time of this supposed
settlement wasthatof the twentieth dynastyof Egypt.
Of course their first settlements were on a small
scale, and probably under Egyptian suzerainty.
Later, as Egypt lost her grip on Asia, the Puru-
sati became independent and multiplied in numbers
and strength until they could easily make good their
claim to the region in which they had settled.

According to the Old Testament, the Philistines
were in power in their new land at least as early as
the Exodus (E.\. .xiii. 17, xxiii. 31). Josh. xiii. 2, 3
lends color to the view that they had specific bound-
aries in the time of tiie conquest. During the period
of the Judges they were a thorn in the side of
Israel (Judges iii. 31, v. 6, x. 11, xiii.-xvi.). They
were so well organized politically, with their five
great capitals, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and
Gaza, and a lord over each with its surrounding
district, that Israel in its earlier history was put to
a decided disadvantage (I Sam. iv. 17, vii. 2-14).
Their supremacy over Saul's realm {ib. xiii. 3 et
S€(j.) and their restriction of Israel's arms made the
Philistines easy rulers of their mountain neighbors.
Saul's defeat of them at Michmash {ib. xiv.) was
only temporary, as he finally fled to Gilboa before
the invincible ranks of these warriors.

Not until David's assumption of supremacy over
all Israel and after two hard battles were the Philis-
tines compelled to recognize the rule of their
former subjects. This broke their
Conquered, power so effectually that they never
by entirely recovered. After the disrup-

David. tion of the kingdom of Solomon the
Philistines secured their independence,
which they possessed at intervals down to the over-
throw of the Israelitish kingdoms. During this en-
tire period they are found exerci-sing the same hos-
tility toward the Israelites (Amos i. 6-8; Joel iii.
4-«) that characterized their earlier history. In this
same period the Assyrian conquerors mention sev-
eral Philistine cities as objects of their attacks. The
crossing and recrossing of Philistines territory by the
armies of Egypt and Asia finally destroyed the
Philistines as a separate nation and people; so that
when Camby.ses the Persian crossed their former
territory about 625, he described it as belonging to
an Arabian ruler.

The Philistines' language was apparently Semitic,
the language of the peoples they conquered. Their
religion, too, was most likely Semitic, as they are
found worshiping the deities met with
Language among other Semitic peoples. They
and Gov- were governod, in Isniol's early liis-
ernment. tory, by a confederation of five kiiagsor
rulers of their chief cities. Their army
was well organized and brave, and consisted of in-
fantry, cavalry, and cliariotry. In fine, they were a
civilized people as far back as they can be traced ; and
as such they became relatively strong and wealthy
in their fertile plains. They engaged in commerce,
and in their location became thoroughly acquainted
with the great peoples of their times. Their dis-

appearance as a nation from history occurred about

the time of the conquest of Cyrus.

Bibliography : McCurdy, lUxturti, Pri^phecy. and (he Mimu-
mtntx, I.. S8 liC UH; G. A. Siiiitli. HiiitorUal Geoynip/ij/"/
the Holii La tut, cli. ix.; BruRsch, Egypt Uuiler the Fharaohs,
ch. ix., .xiv.; W. M. Muller, .4sit» uud Kurnpa, eh. xxvl.-
xxix.: Schwally, Die liasxe der FhHi.ttder. in Zeitschrift
fllr WiioieiiKchaftUche Theologie, xxxiv. 1(13 et seq.; W.J.
Beeclier, in Hustings, Diet. Bible, s.v.; G. F. Moore, in Cheyno
and Black, Eneuc. Bill. s.v.
K. O. II. I. M. P.

I'HILLIPS : American family, espcciallj'' prom-
inent in New York and Philadelphia, and tracing its
descent back to Jonas Phillips, who emigrated from
Germany to England in 1751 and thence to America
in 1756. The genealogical tree of the family is given
on page 3.

Henry Phillips, Jr. : Archeologist and numis-
matist; born at Philadelphia Sept. 6, 1838; died
June, 1895; son of Jonas Altamont Phillips. He
was well known for his studies in folklore, philology,
and numismatics, both in the United States and in
Europe. Two gold medals were conferred upon him
by Italian societies for his writings. He was treas-
urer (1862) and secretary (1868) of the Numismatic
and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia, and a sec-
retary (from 1880) and the librarian (from 1885) of the
American Philosophical Society, as well as member
of many other learned societies at home and abroad.

Phillips' works on the paper currency of the
American colonies and on American Continental
money were the first on those subjects. His works
have been cited by the United States Supreme Court
in a decision on the "Legal Tender Cases." Among
his writings may be mentioned : " History of Ameri-
can Colonial Paper Currency " (1865); "History of
American Continental Paper Money " (1866) ; " Pleas-
ures of Numismatic Science" (1867); "Poems from
the Spanish and German" (1878); "Faust" (1881);
and four volumes of translations from the Spanish,
Hungarian, and German (1884-87; see Appleton's
"Cyclopedia of American Biography," iv. ; Henry
S. Morals, "The Jews of Philadelphia," s.v.; Oscar
Fay Adams, "A Dictionary of American Authors,"
p. 295, New York, 1897; "Proceedings of the
American Philological Association," 1896).

A. L. Hij.

Henry Mayer Phillips : American lawyer,
congressman, and financier; son of Zalegman and
Arabella Phillips; born in Philadelphia June 30,
1811, where he attended a private school and the
high school of the Franklin Institute; died Aug. 28,
1884. Phillijjs was admitted to the bar Jan. 5, 1832.
Immediately after his admission he accepted the po-
sition of clerk of the Court of Common Pleas.

In Dec, 1841, he was elected solicitor of the dis-
trict of Spring Garden. In the October election of
1856 he was chosen a member of the thirty-fifth
Congress and served during 1857-59. He addressed
the House of Representatives on the admission of
Kansas into the Union under the Le Compton Con-
stitution on March 9, 1858, and on June 12 he spoke
on the expenditures and revenues of the country.

In Dec, 1858, he was elected grand master of the
Grand Lodge of F'ree and Accepted Masons of the
State of Penn.sylvania, and was reelected in 1859 and
1860. On Dec 4, 1862, he was chosen trustee of the
Jefferson Medical College to fill a vacancy caused

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

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Phillips

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Phillips
Phillips, Morris

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Henry M. Phillips.

by the death of his brother J. Altamout Phillips,
and subsequently became its treasurer.

The Court of Common Pleas appointed him a
member of the board of park commissioners May
13. 1867, and March 12, 1881, he was elected presi-
dent of the board. He was appointed a member of
the board of city trusts Sept. 2, 1869, became its

vice-president May 11,
1870. and on March 13,
1878, was chosen its presi-
dent, which office he re-
signed in Dec, 1881.

In 1870 Phillips was
appointed a member of
the commission for the
construction of a bridge
crossing the Schuylkill
River. He was one of the
original members of the
Public Buildings Com-
kV'^</ mission established in 1870,

Z-K^'^v y' but resigned the next year.

^^* '^' In 1870''he was chosen a

director of the Academy
of Music, became its presi-
dent in 1872, and resigned in 1884. He was elected
a member of the American Pliilosophical Society
in Jan., 1871, and a director of the Pennsylvania
Railroad, Northern Central Railroad, Philadelphia,
"Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, and of the
Western Union Telegraph Company in March, 1874.
He became a director of the Pennsylvania Company
for Insurance on Lives and Granting Annuities on
Oct. 16, 1874.

On Dec. 20, 1882, he presided at the "bar dinner"
given to Chief Justice Sharswood on the retirement
of the latter; this Avas the last public occasion in
which he participated as a member of the Phila-
delphia bar, of which he had become a leader.

Phillips was a member of the Sephardic (Spanish
and Portuguese) Congregation Mickve Israel of
Philadelphia. In former years, more especially in
the period from 1836 to 1851, he took considerable
interest in its affairs, taking an active part in the
controversy between Isaac Leeser and the congre-
gation ; his efforts were largely instrumental in elect-
ing Sabato Morais as minister of the congregation on
April 13, 1851.
A. D. Su.

Isaac Phillips : Lawyer ; born in New York
June 16, 1812; died there 1889; son of Naphtali
Phillips. He was appointed by President Pierce
appraiser of the port of New York, which position
he occupied for many years, and he was well known
politically. He took a deep interest in educational
matters, being a commissioner of the New York
board of education ; he was likewise the editor of va-
rious newspapers in the city of New York, grand
ma.ster of the freemasons of the state of New York,
and an active member of the New York Chamber
of Commerce. He married (1) Sophia Phillips and
(2) Miriam Trimble.

Jonas Phillips : The first of the family to settle
in America ; born 1 736, the place of his birth being va-
riously given as Busick and Frankfort-on-the-Main ;
died at Philadelphia, Pa. , Jan. 29, 1803 ; son of Aaron

Phillips. He emigrated to America from London in
Nov., 1756, and at first resided in Charleston, S. C,
where he was employed by Closes Lindo. He soon
removed to Albany, and thence, shortly afterward,
to New York, where he engaged in mercantile pur-
suits. As early as 1760 he was identified with a
lodge of freemasons in that city. In 1762 he mar-
ried Rebecca Mendez
Machado (see M.\-
CH.\Do). In 1769 he
became a freeman of
New York.

At the outbreak of
the American Revo-
lution Phillips fa-
vored the patriot
cause; and he was an
ardent supporter of
the Non-Importation
Agreement in 1770.
In 1776 he used his
influence in the New
York congregation to
close the doors of the
synagogue and re-
move rather than Jo°'is Phillips.
continue under the

British. The edifice was abandoned ; and, with the
majoritj' of the congregation, Phillips removed to
Philadelphia, where he continued in business until
1778. In that j-ear he joined the Revolutionary
army, serving in the Philadelphia Militia under Colo-
nel Bradford.

When Congregation Mickve Israel was estab-
lished in Philadelphia, Phillips was one of its active
founders, and was its president at the consecration
of its synagogue in 1782. After the Revolution he
removed to New York, but soon returned to Phila-
delphia, where he continued to reside until his death.
His remains, however, were interred at New York
in the cemoterj-, on New Bowery, of Congregation
Shearith Israel. His widow survived until 1831.
Of his twenty-one children, special mention should
be made of the following si.x:

(1) Rachel Phillips: Born 1769; died 1839;
married iSIichacl Levy, and was the mother of Com-
modore Uriah P. Levy of the United States navy.

(2) Naphtali Phillips : Born 1773; died 1870;
married (1797) Rachel Mendez Sei.xas (d. 1822) of
Newport, R. I. One year after her death he married
Esther (b. 1789; d. 1872), the daughter of Benjamin
Mendez Sei.xas. Phillijjs was the proprietor of the
"National Advocate," a New York newspaper, and
was also president of Congregation Shearith Israel
in that city.

(3) Manuel Phillips : Assistant surgeon in the
United States navy from 1809 to 1824; died at Vera
Cruz in 1826.

(4) Joseph Phillips : Died 1854. He served in
the War of 1S12.

(5) Aaron J. Phillips : Actor and playwright;
born in Philadelphia; died at New York in 1826.
He made his first appearance at the Park Theater,
New York, in 1815, and was successful in Shakes-
peare's "Comedy of Errors." Later he became a
theatrical manager (see Charles P. Daly, "Settle-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips
Phillips, Slorris

inent of the Jews in North America," pp. 102-103,
120, New York, 1893).

(6) Zalegman Phillips: Lawyer; born 1779;
died Aug. 21, iy3'J. He was graduated from tiie
Vniversity of Peniisylvauia in 1795, and became one
of the leading criminal lawyers of Philadelphia.

Jonas Altamont Phillips: Lawyer; born at
PhihulelpiiialbUG; diedtiiere 18(32; brother of Henry
M. Phillips. He became prominent as a lawyer, and
in 1847-48 was the Democratic candidate for tiie
mayoralty of Philadelphia. President Buchanan is
said to have tendered him the position of judge of
the United States District Court, which he declined.
In 1837 he married Frances Cohen of Charleston,
8. C.

Jonas B. Phillips: Dramatist; born Oct. 28,
180"), at Philadelphia; died 1869; son of Benjamin J.
Phillips. He became known as a dramatist as early
as 1838. Among the plays he produced were : " Cold
Stricken" (1838), "Camillus," and "The Evil Eye."
Subsequently he studied law and became assistant
district attorney for the county of Ncav York, hold-
ing that aiipointmeut under several successive ad-
ministrations (see Daly, I.e. p. 145).

Jonas N. Phillips: Born 1817; died 1874; son
of Naphtali Phillips. He was chief of the volunteer
fire department in the city of New York for many
years, and president of the board of councilraen and
acting mayor in 1857.

Naphtali Taylor Phillips: Lawyer; born in
New York Dec. 5, 1868; sou of Isaac Phillips by his
second wife. He has held various political offices, e.g. :
he was member of the New York state legislature
(1898-1901), serving on the judiciary and other com-
mittees and as a member of the Joint Statutory
Revision Commission of that body (1900) ; and dep-
uty comptroller of the city of New York (from 1902).
He is also a trustee of the American Scenic and His-
toric Preservation Society, and a member of the Sons
of the American Revolution and of the New York
Historical Society. He is treasurer of the Jew-
ish Historical Society and lias contributed several
papers to its publications. For fifteen years he has
been clerk of Congregation Shearith Israel. In
1892 Phillips married Rosalie Solomons, daughter of
Adolphus S. Solomons. Mrs. Phillips is an active
member of the Daughters of the American Revo-
lution.

Bibliography: Charles P. T)s.\j, SetiUment of the Jews in
North Aiiinica, New York, 1893; Isaac Markens, The He-
7>reics in America, ib. 1888; Henrv S. Moniis, The Jews of
Philadelphia, Philadelphia, 18&i; H. P. Rosenbach. The
Jews in Philadelphia, 188;i; N. Taylor Phillips, in Pnbl.
Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. ii. 51, iv. 204 et seq.; Sabato Morals, ih.
1.; M. J. Kohler. ih. iv. 89 ; Herbert Friedenvvald, i/). vi. 50 et
seq. (other references are found in almost all the volumes
issued by the society); L. Hiihner, A'fKJ York Jews in the
Strunqle for American Tudcucudence ; Pennsi/lrania As-
snciatin-s and Militia in the lievolution, i. f>82; Nciv York
Gazette and Weeklu Post Buy, July 23, 1770; New York
Hist. Soc. Col. for 1885, p. 49.
A. L. Hv.

PHILLIPS, BARNET : American journalist ;
born in Philadelphia Nov. 9, 1828; educated at the
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, whence
he was graduated in 1847. Shortly afterward he
set out for Europe, where he continued his studies
and engaged in journalism. On his return to the
United States, Phillips joined the staff of the " New

York Times " and published two books, " The Strug-
gle " and " Burning Their Ships." Phillips' connec-
tion with the "New York Times" extends over
thirty years.
A. F. H. V.

PHILLIPS, SIR BENJAMIN SAMUEL:

Lord mayor of London; born in London in 1811;
died there Oct. 9, 1889. He was a son of Samuel
Phillips, tailor, and was educated at Neumegen's
school at Ilighgate and Kew. In 1833 he married,
and soon afterward entered into partnership with
his brother-in-law Henry Faudel, thus laying the
foundation of the firm of Faudel, Phillips & Sons.
He then became an active worker in the community,
being elected president of the Institution for the Relief
of the Jewish Indigent Blind in 1850 and president
of the Hebrew Literary Society. He rendered im-
portant services in the foundation of the United
Synagogue, of which be was elected a life-member
in June, 1880. For thirty years Phillips was a mem-
ber of the Board of Deputies as representative of
the Great and Central synagogues ; he served as a
member of the Rumanian Committee, and was a
vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish Association.

Benjamin Phillips will be chiefly remembered for
the prominent part he took in the struggle for the
removal of Jewish disabilities. In 1846 he was
elected a member of the common council as repre-
sentative of the ward of Farringdon Within. After
being returned at every subsequent election, he was
elected alderman of the ward in 1857. In 1859 he
held the office of sheriff, and on Sept. 29, 1865, was
elected lord mayor. He performed the duties of
mayor with marked distinction, and the King of the
Belgians, whom he entertained, conferred upon him
the Order of Leopold. During his mayoralty he
rendered considerable help in personally raising
£70,000 toward the great Cholera Fund. In recog-
nition of these services he was knighted by Queen
Victoria. In 1888, owing to advancing years, he re-
tired from the court of aldermen, being succeeded
in the office by his second son, Alderman Sir George
Faudel-Phillips, who was unanimously elected.

Sir Benjamin Phillips was for many years a mem-
ber of the Spectacle-Makers Company (of which he
was master) and was on the commission for the Lieu-
tenancy of the City of London.

BmLiOGRAPHv: Jew. Chrnn. and Jew. World, Oct. 18,1889;
The Times aad other London newspapers, Oct. 10, 1889.
J. G. L.

PHILLIPS, GEORGE LYON : Jamaican pol-
itician; born in 1811; died at Kingston, Jamaica,
Dec. 29, 1886. One of the most prominent and in-
fluential residents of Jamaica, he held the chief
magistrateship of the privy council and other im-
portant executive oftices on the island. During the
an.xious period known as tlie " Saturnalia of Blood "
Phillips especially conserved the interests of the col-
ony by his gentle and calm demeanor at councils of
state.

BiBiionRAPHY : Falmouth Gazette (JamaicaK Dec. 31. 1885 ;
./(If. World, Jan. 28, 1887 ; Jew. Chnoi. Feb. 4, 1887.

J. G. L.

PHILLIPS, MORRIS: American journalist
and writer; born in Loudon, England, May 9, 1834.

PhillipB. Philip
Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips received his elementary education in Cleve-
land, Ohio, and later continued his studies under
private tutors in New York. He studied for the
legal profession, first in Buffalo and later in New
Vurk. But the opportunity being open to him of
ussociation with Nathaniel Parker Willis as joint
editor of the "New York Home Journal," he em-
braced it at once, and from Sept., 1854, until the
death of Willis in Jan., 1867, Phillips was associate
editor of that periodical, of which he then became
chief editor ami sole proprietor. Phillips was a
prolific writer and an extensive traveler; as such
he held commissions as special correspondent for
several daily newspapers, and published in many
magazines the fruits of his observations.
A. F. H. V.

PHILLIPS, PHILIP: American jurist; born
in Charleston, S. C, Dec. 17, 1807; died in Wash-
ington, D. C, Jan. 14, 1884i He was educated at
tlje Norwich Military Academy in Vermont and at
3Iiddletown, Conn. He then studied law and was
admitted to the bar in 1829, settling in Cheraw,
S. C. He was a member of the Nullification Con-
vention of 1832. Elected to the state legislature
in 1834, he resigned in 1835 and moved to Mobile,
Ala., where he practised law. He was president
of the Alabama State Convention in 1837, and was
elected to the state legislature in 1844, being re-
elected in 1852. In 1853-55 he was a member of
Congress from Alabama. He then moved to Wash-
ington, where lie continued his profession until the
Civil war, when he migrated to New Orleans. After
the war he returned to Washington and resided there
until his death. In 1840 he prepared a "Digest of
Decisions of the Supreme Court of Alabama, " and he
wrote '* Practise of the Supreme Court of tlie United
States." He married Eugenia Levy of Charleston,
S. C, on Sept. 7, 1836.

BinuonRAPHT: Brewer, ^ialia ma, pp. 406-407; Garrett, 7?em-
iniscences of Public Men in Alabama, 1872, pp. 4(J5-407.

A. A. S. L

PHILLIPS, PHINEAS: Polish merchant;
flourished about 1775. He held the position of chief
of the Jewish community at Krotoschin, at that
time a fief of the princes of Thurn and Taxis. The
reigning prince held Phillips in considerable esteem
and entrusted him with personal commissions.

In the course of business Phillips attended the
Leipsic fairs and tho.se held in other important Con-
tinental cities. In 1775 he extended his travels to
England. Once there, he settled for some time in
London, where he carried on an extensive business
in indigo and gum.

After his dciitli. while on a visit to his native
town his son Samuel Phillips estai)lished himself
in London and became the father of Sir Benjamin
Phillips and grandfather of Sir George Faudel-
Phillips, Bart., both lord mayors of London.

Bibliography: Jew. Chron. Oct. 18, 1889.

•' G. L.

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL: English journalist;
born at London 1815; died at Brighton Oct., 1854.
He was the son of an English merchant, and at fif-
teen years of age made his debut as an actor at Cov-

ent Garden. Influential friends then placed him
at Cambridge, whence he passed to Gottingen Uni-
versity. Phillips then came to London, and in 1841
turned his attention to literature ami journalism.
His earliest work was a romance entitled ''Caleb
Stukeley," which appeared in "Blackwood's Maga-
zine " and was reprinted in 1843. Its success led to
further contributions to "Blackwood's," including
" We Are All Low People There " and other tales.

Phillips continued to write for periodicals, and he
was subsequently admitted as literary critic to the
staff of the "Times." His articles were noted for
their vigor of expression and their wealth of ideas.
Dickens, Carlyle, Mrs. Slowe, and other popular
writers were boldl}' assailed by the anonymous
critic, whose articles became the talk of the town.
In 1852 and 1854 two volumes of his literary essays
were published anonymously. Phillips was also
associated with the "Morning Herald " and "John
Bull."

When the Society of the Crystal Palace was formed
Phillips became secretary and afterward literary
director. In connection with the Palace he wrote
the "Guide" and the "Portrait Gallery."

Bibmograpiiy: The Times (London), Oct. 17, 1854: Didot,
Nnuvcnu Biugraphie General; Chambers, Cue. of English
Literature.

J. G. L.

PHILO JUD^US: Alexandrian philosopher;
born about 20 b.c. at Alexandria, Egypt; died after
40 c.E. The few biographical details concerning
him that have been preserved are found in his own
works (especially in "Legatio ad Caium," t;i; 22, 28;
ed. Mangey [hereafter cited in brackets], ii. 567,
572; "De Specialibus Legibus." ii. 1 [ii. 299]) and
in Josephus ("Ant." xviii. 8, § 1; comp. ib. xix. 5,
§ 1 ; XX. 5, g 2). The only event that can be deter-
mined chronologically is his participation in the
embassy which the Alexandrian Jews sent to the
emperor Caligula at Rome for the purpose of asking
protection against the attacks of the Alexandrian
Greeks. This occurred in the year 40 c.E.

Philo included in his philosophy both Greek wisdom
and Hebrew religion, which he sought to fuse and
harmonize by means of the art of allegorj' that he
had learned from the Stoics. His work was not ac-
cepted b}' contemporary Judaism. "The sophists
of ]iteralne!5s,"as he calls them ("De Somniis,"i. 16-
17), "opened their eyes superciliously " when he ex-
plained to them the marvels of his exegesis. Greek
science, suppressed by the victorious Phariseeism
(Men. 99), was .soon forgotten. Philo was all the
more enthusiastically received b}' the early Chris-
tians, some of whom saw in him a Christian.

His Works : The Church Fathers have preserved
most of Philo's works that are now extant. These
are chieflj' commentaries on the Pentateuch. As
Ewald has pointed out, three of Philo's chief works
lie in this field (comp. Siegfried, "Abhandlung zur
Kritik der Schriften Philo's," 1874, p. 565).

(a) He explains the Pentateuch catechetically, in
the form of questions and answers ("Z?/r^^a-a /cat
Avaeir, Qufestiones et Solutiones "). It can not now
be determined how far he carried out this method.
Only the following fragments have been preserved :
passages in Armenian in explanation of Genesis and

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phillips, Philip
Philo Judaeus

Exodus, an old Latin translation of a part of the
"Genesis," and fragments from the Greek text in
the "Sacra Parallela," iu the "Catena," and also in
Ambrosius. The explanation is conlined cliiclly to
determining the literal sense, although Philo fre-
quently refers to the allegorical sense as the higher.

(b) That he cared mainly for the latter he shows
in his scientific chief work, the great allegorical
commentary, i^ofiuv 'lepdv ' Alhiyopiai, or "Legum

Allegoria'," which deals, so far as it
His Alle- has been preserved, with selected
gorical passages from Genesis. According to
Coramen- Philo's original idea, the history of
tary. primal man is here considered as a
symbol of the religious and moral de-
velopment of the human soul. This great commen-
tary included the follovving treatises: (1) " De Alle-
goriis Legum," books i.-iii., on Geu. ii. 1-iii. la,
8b-19 (on the original extent and contents of these
three books and the probably more correct combina-
tion of i. and ii., see Schiirer, "Gesch." iii. 503); (2)
" De Cherubim," on Gen. iii. 24, iv. 1 ; (3) " De Sacrili-
ciis Abelis etCaini," on Gen. iv. 2-4 (comp. Schiirer,
I.e. p. 504); (4) "De Eo Quod Deterius Potiori Insi-
diatur"; (5) "De Posteritate Caini," on Gen. iv.
16-25 (see Cohn and Wendland, "Philonis Alex-
andrini," etc., ii., pp. xviii. et seq., 1-41; "Philolo-
gus," Ivii. 248-288); (6) " De Gigautibus," on Gen.
vi. 1-4; (7) "Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," on Gen.
vi. 4-12 (Schiirer [I.e. p. 506] correctly combines Nos.
6 and 7 into one book ; Massebieau [" Biblioth(^que de
I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes," p. 23, note 2, Paris,
1889] adds after No. 7 the lost books ITept Aia-^r/Kuv) ;
(8) " De Agricultura Noe," on Gen. ix. 20 (comp. Von
Arnim, "Quellenstudien zu Philo von Alexandria,"
1899, pp. 101-140); (9) " De Ebrietate," on Gen. ix.
21 (on the lost second book see Schiirer, I.e. p. 507,
and Von Arnim, I.e. pp. 53-100); (10) "Resipuit
Noa, sen De Sobrietate," on Gen. ix. 24-27; (11)
" De Conf usione Linguaruni," on Gen. xi. 1-9; (12)
"De Migratione Abrahann'," on Gen. xii. 1-6; (13)
"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," on Gen. xv.
2-18 (on the work Ilepl Miai^uv cited in this treatise
see Massebieau, I.e. pp. 27 etseq., note 3); (14) "De
Congressu QuferendsE Eruditionis Gratia," on Gen.
xvi. 1-6; (15) "De Profugis," on Gen. xvi. 6-14;
(16) "De Mutatione Nominum," on Gen. xvii. 1-22
(on the fragment " De Deo," which contains a com-
mentary on Gen. xviii. 2, see Massebieau, I.e. p.
29); (17) "DeSomniis," book i., on Gen. xxviii. 12
etseq., xxxi. 11 <'<.<(e9. (.Jacob's dreams) ;" DeSomniis,"
book ii., on Gen. xxxvii. 40 et seq. (the dreams of
Joseph, of the cupbearer, the baker, and Pharaoh).
Philo's three other books on dreams have been lost.
The first of these (on the dreams of Abimelech and
Laban) preceded the present book i., and discussed
the dreams in which God Himself spoke with the
dreamers, this fitting in very well with Gen. xx. 3.
On a doxographic source used by Philo in book i.,
§ 4 [i. 623], see Wendland in "Sitz(mgsbericht der
Berliner Akademie," 1897, No. xlix. 1-6.

(c) Philo wrote a systematic work on Moses and
his laws, which was jirefaced bj^ the treatise " De
Opificio Mundi," which in the present editions pre-
cedes "De Allcgoriis Legum," book i. (comp. "De
Abrahamo," § 1 [ii. 1], with " De Prsemiis et Poenis,"

§ 1 [ii. 408]). The Creation is, according to Philo,
the basis for the Mosaic legislation, wliich is in
complete harmony with nature ("De Opificio
Mundi," ^ 1 [i. 1]). The exposition of the Law then
follows in two sections. First come the biographies
of the men who antedated the several written laws of
the Torah, as Enos, P^noch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob. These were the Patriarchs, who were
the living impersonations of the active law of virtue
before there were any written laws. Then the laws

are discussed in detail: first the chief

On the ten commandments (the Decalogue),

Patriarchs, and then the precepts in amplification

of each law. The work is divided info
the following treatises: (1) "De Opificio Mundi"
(comp. Siegfried in "Zeitschrift fiir Wi.ssenschaft-
liche Theologie," 1874, pp. 562-565; L. Cohn's im-
portant separate edition of this treatise, Breslau, 1889,
preceded the edition of the same in "' Philonis Alexan-
drini," etc., 1896, i.). (2) " De Abrahamo," on Abra-
ham, the representative of the virtue acquii-ed by
learning. The lives of Isaac and Jacob have been
lost. The three patriarchs were intended as types of
the ideal cosmopolitan condition of the world. (3)
"De Josepho," the life of Joseph, intended to show-
how the wise man must act in the actually existing
state. (4) "DeVita Mosis," books i.-iii.; Schiirer,
I.e. p. 523, combines the three books into two; but,
as Massebieau shows {I.e. pp. 42 et seq.), a passage,
though hardl}' an entire book, is missing at the end
of the present second book (Wendland. in "Hermes,"
xxxi. 440). Schiirer {I.e. pp. 515, 524) excludes this
work here, although he admits that from a literary
point of view it fits into this group ; but he considers
it foreign to the work in general, since Moses, un-
like the Patriarchs, can not be conceived as a uni-
versally valid type of moral action, and can not be
described as such. The latter point may be ad-
mitted; but the question still remains whether it is
necessary to regard the matter in this light. It
seems most natural to preface the discussion of
the law with the biography of the legislator, while
the tran.sition from Joseph to the legislation, from
the statesman who has nothing to do with the divine
laws to the discussion of these laws themselves, is
forced and abrupt. Moses, as the perfect man,
unites in himself, in a way, all the faculties of the
patriarchal types. His is the "most pure mind"
("De Mutatione Nominum," 37 [i. 610]), he is the
"lover of virtue," who has been purified from all pas-
sions (" De Allegoriis Legum, " iii. 45, 48 [i. 1 1 3, 1 15]).
As the person awaiting the divine revelation, he is
also specially fitted to announce it to others, after

having received it in the form of the

On the Commandments (i7). iii. 4 [i. 89 et seq.]).

Law. (5) "De Decalogo," the introductory

treatise to the chief ten command-
ments of the Law. (6) "De Specialibus Legibus,"
in which treatise Philo attempts to systematize the
several laws of the Torah, and to arrange them in
conformity with the Ten Commandments. To the
first and second commandments he adds the laws
relating to priests and sacrifices; to the third (mis-
use of the name of God), the laws on oaths, vows,
etc. ; to the fourth (on the Sabbath), the laws on
festivals; to the fifth (to honor father and mother),

Philo JudeeuB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the laws on respect for parents, old age, etc. ; to the
sixth, the marriage laws; to the seventh, the civil
and criminal laws; to the eighth, the laws on theft;
to the ninth, the laws on truthful testifying; and to
the tenth, the laws on lust (comp. Stade-Holtzmann,
"Gesch. des Volkes Israel," 1888, ii. 535-545; on
Philo as iurtuenced by the Halakah, see B. liitter,
"Philo uud die Halacha," Leipsic, 1879, and Sieg-
fried's review of the same in the "Jenaer Litera-
turzeitung," 1879, No. 35). The first book includes
the following treatises of the current editions: "De
Circumcisioue " ; "De Monarchia," books i. and ii. ;
"De Sacerdotum Honoribus"; "De Victimis." On
the division of the book into these sections, the titles
of the latter, and newly found sections of the text,
see SchUrer, I.e. p. 517; Wendland, I.e. pp. 136 et
teq. The second book includes in the editions a sec-
tion also entitled " De Specialibus Legibus " (ii. 270-
277), to which is added the treatise " De Septenario,"
which is, however, incomplete in Mangey. The
greater part of the missing portion was supplied,
under the title " De Cophini Festo et de Colendis
Parentibus," by Mai (1818), and was printed in
Richter's edition, v. 48-50, Leipsic, 1828. The com-
plete text of the second book was published by
Tischendorf in his "Philonea" (pp. 1-83). The
third book is included under the title "De Speciali-
bus Legibus " in ed. Mangey, ii. 299-334. The fourth
book also is entitled "De Specialibus Legibus"; to
it the last sections are added under the titles "De
Judice " and '' De Concupiscentia " in the usual edi-
tions; and they include, also, as appendix, the sec-
tions "De Justitia " and "De Creatione Princi-
pum." (7) The treatises "De Fortitudine," " De
Caritate," and " De Poenitentia " are a kind of appen-
dix to "De Specialibus Legibus." Schlirer (^.c. pp.
519 [note 82], 520-522) combines them into a special
book, which, he thinks, was composed by Philo.
(8) "De Praemiis et Pconis" and "De Execratione."
On the connection of both see Schiirer, I.e. pp. 522
et seq. This is the conclusion of the exposition of
the Mosaic law.

Independent Works: (1) "Quod Omnis Probus
Liber," the second half of a work on the freedom of
the just according to Stoic principles. The genu-
ineness of this work has been disputed by Frankel
(in "Monatsschrift," ii. ^Oetseq., Qletseq.), by Gratz
("Gesch." iii. 464 et seq.), and more recently by Ans-
feld(1887), Hilgenfeld (in "Zeitschrift fiir Wissen-
schaftliche Theologie," 1888, pp. 49-71), and others.
Now Wendland, Ohle, Schiirer, Massebieau, and
Krell consider it genuine, with the exception of the
partly interpolated passages on the Essenes. (2)
" In Flaccum " and " De Legatione ad Caium," an ac-
count of the Alexandrian persecution of the Jews
under Caligula. This account, consisting originally
of five books, has been preserved in fragments only
(see Schiirer, I.e. pp. 525 et seq.). Philo intended to
show the fearful punishment meted out bj'^ God to
the persecutors of the Jews (on Philo's predilection
for similar discussions .see Siegfried, " Philo von Al-
exandria," p. 157). (3) "De Providcntia," preserved
only in Armenian, and printed from Aucher's Latin
translation in the editions of Richter and others (on
Greek fragments of tlie work see Schnrer, I.e. pp.
531 et seq.). (4) "De Animalibus" (on the title see

Schiirer, I.e. p. 532; in Richter's cd. viii. 101-144).
(5) 'TrrodeTiKd ("Counsels"), a work known only
through fragments in Eusebius, " Pneparatio Evan-
gelica," viii. 6, 7. The meaning of the title is open
to discussion; it may be identical with the follow-
ing (No. G). (6) Hf/jt 'Iov6(iiuv, an apology for the
Jews (Schiirer, I.e. pp. 5d'2 et seq.).

For a list of the lost works of Philo see Schiirer,
I.e. p. 5:U.

Other Works Ascribed to Philo : (1) " De Vita Con-
templativa "' (on the dilferent titles comp. Schiirer,
I.e. p. 535). This work describes the mode of life
and the religious festivals of a society of Jewish
ascetics, who, according to the author, are widely
scattered over the eurtii, and are found especially
in every^ nome in Egypt. The writer, however,
confines himself to describing a colony of hermits
.settled on the Lake Mareotis in Egypt, where each
lives separately in his own dwelling. Six days
of the week they spend in pious contemplation,
chiefly in connection with Scripture. On the sev-
enth day both men and women assemble together in
a hall ; and the leader delivers a discourse consist-
ing of an allegorical interpretation of a Scriptural
passage. The feast of the fiftieth day is especially
celebrated. The ceremony begins with a frugal
meal consisting of bread, salted vegetables, and
water, during which a passage of Scripture is inter-
preted. After the meal the members of the society
in turn sing religious songs of various kinds, to which
the assembly answers with a refrain. The ceremony
ends with a choral representation of the triumphal
festival that Moses and lyiiriam arranged after the
passage through the Red Sea, the voices of the men
and the women uniting in a choral symphony^ until
the sun rises. Aftera common morning prayer each
goes home to resume his contemplation. Such is
the contemplative life (Sio^ deufjTjTiKdc) led by these
QepaTTEvrai (" servants of Yiiwh ").

The ancient Church looked upon these Therapeutoe
as disguised Christian monks. This view has found
advocates even in very recent times; Lucius' opin-
ion particularly, that the Christian monkdom of the
third century was here glorified in a Jewish disguise,
was widely accepted ("Die Therapeuten," 1879).
But the ritual of the society, which was entirely^ at
variance with Christianity, disproves this view.
The chief ceremony especially, the choral represen-
tation of the passage through the Red Sea, has no
special significance for Christianity ; nor have there
ever been in the Christian Church nocturnal festi-
vals celebrated by men and women
"DeVita together. But Massebieau ("Revue
Contempla- de I'Histoire des Religions," 1887, xvi.
tiva." 170 et seq., 284 et seq.), Conybeare
("Philo About the Contemplative
Life," Oxford, 1895), and Wendland ("Die Thera-
peuten," etc.. Leipsic, 1896) ascribe the entire work
to Philo, basing their argument wholly on linguistic
reasons, which seem sufficiently conclusive. But
there are great dissimilarities between the funda-
mental conceptions of the author of the "De Vita
Contemplativa " and those of Philo. The latter
looks upon Greek culture and philosophy as allies,
the former is hostile to Greek philosophy (see Sieg-
fried in " Protestantische Kirchenzeitung," 1896, No.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judaeus

42). He repudiates a science that numbered among
its followers the sacred baud of the Pythagoreans,
inspired men like Parmenides, Empedocles, Zeno,
Cleanthes, lleraclitus, and Plato, whom Philo prized
("Quod Ouuiis Probus," i., ii. ; "Quis Rerum Divi-
narum Heres Sit," 43; "De Providentia," ii. 42, 48,
etc.). He considers the symposium a detestable,
common drinking-bout. This can not be explained
as a Stoic diatribe ; for in this ca.se Philo would not
have repeated it. And Philo would have been the
last to interpret the Platonic Eros in the vulgar way
in which it is explained in the "De Vita Contempla-
tiva," 7 [ii. 480], as he repeatedly uses the myth of
double man allegorically in his interpretation of
Scripture ("De Opificio Mundi," 24; "De Allegoriis
Legum," ii. 24). It must furthermore be remem-
bered that Philo in none of his other works men-
tions these colonies of allegorizing ascetics, in which
he would have been highly interested had he known
of them. But pupils of Philo may subsequently
have founded near Alexandria similar colonies that
endeavored to realize his ideal of a pure life tri-
umphing over the senses and passions; and they
might also have been responsible for the one-sided
development of certain of the master's principles.
While Philo desired to renounce the lusts of this
world, he held fast to the scientific culture of Hel-
lenism, which the author of this book denounces.
Although Philo liked to withdraw from the world
in order to give himself up entirely to contempla-
tion, and bitterly regretted the lack of such repose
("De Specialibus Legibus," 1 [ii. 299]), he did not
abandon the work that was required of him by the
welfare of his people.

(2) "De Incorruptibilitate Mundi." Since the
publication of I. Bernays' investigations there has
been no doubt that this work is spurious. Its Peri-
patetic basic idea that the world is eternal and in-
destructible contradicts all those Jewish teachings
that were for Philo an indisputable presupposition.
Bernays has proved at the same time that the text
has been confused through wrong pagination, and
he has cleverly restored it (" Gesammelte Abhand-
lungen," 1885, i. 283-290; "Abhandlungder Berliner
Akademie," 1876, Philosophical-Historical Division,
pp. 209-278; ib. 1882, sect. iii. 82; Von Arnim, I.e.
pp. 1-52).

(3) "De Mundo," a collection of extracts from
Philo, especially from the preceding work (comp.
Wendland, "Philo," ii., pp. vi.-x.). (4) "DeSamp-
sone " and "De Jona," in Armenian, published with
Latin translation by Aucher. (5) " Interpretatio
Hebraicorum Nominum," a collection, by an anony-
mous Jew, of the Hebrew names occurring in Philo.
Origen enlarged it by adding New Testament
names ; and Jerome revised it. On the etymology of
names occurring in Philo's exegetical works .see be-
low. (6) A "Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,"
which was printed in the sixteenth century and then
disappeared, has been discussed by Cohn in "J. Q.
R." 1898, X. 277-332. It narrates Biblical history
from Adam to Saul (see Schiirer, l.r. p. 542). (7)
The pseudo-Philonic " Breviarium Temporum," pub-
lished by Annius of Viterbo (see Schiirer, I.e. note
168).

His Exegesis. Cultural Basis : Philo, of Jewish

descent, was by birth a Hellene, a member of one
of tiiose colonies, organized after the conquests of
Alexander the Great, that were dominated by
Greek language and culture. The vernacular of
the.se colonies, Hellenistic Greek proper, was every-
wiiere corrupted by idiotisms and solecisms, and in
specifically Jewish circles by Hebraisms and Semi-
tisms, numerous examples of which are found in the
Septuagint, the Apocrypha, and the New Testa-
ment. Tiie educated classes, however, had created
for themselves from the classics, in the so-called
KotvT/ Sid/.eKToc, a purer medium of expression. In
the same way Philo formed his language by means
of extensive reading of the classics. Scholars at an
early date pointed out resemblances to Plato (Suidas,
s.v. ; Jerome, " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis," Cata-
logue, S.V.). But there are also expressions and
phrases taken from Aristotle, as well as from Attic
orators and historians, and poetic phrases and allu-
sions to the poets. Philo's works offer an anthology
of Greek phraseology of the most different periods;
and his language, in consequence, lacks simplicity
and purity (see Treitel, "De Philonis Judaei Ser-
mone," Breslau, 1870; Jessen, "De Elocutione Phi-
lonis Alexandriui," 1889).

But more important than the influence of the lan-
guage was that of the literature. He quotes the
epic and dramatic poets with especial frequency, or
alludes to passages in their works. He has a wide
acquaintance with the works of the Greek philos-
ophers, to which he was devoted, owing to them his
real scholarship, as he himself says (see "De Con-
gressu Quaerendae Eruditionis Gratia," 6 [i. 550];
"De Specialibus Legibus," ii. 229; Deane, "The
Book of Wisdom," 1881, p. 12, note 1). He holds
that the highest perception of truth is possible only
after a study of the encyclopedic sciences. Hence
his system throughout shows the influence of Greek
philosophy. The dualistic contrast between God
and the world, between the finite and the infinite,
appears also in Neo-Pythagorism. The influence
of Stoicism is unmistakable in the doc-
Influence trine of God as the only efficient cause,
of in that of divine reason immanent in

Hellenism, the world, in that of the powers ema-
nating from God and suffusing the
world. In the doctrine of the Logos various ele-
ments of Greek philosophy are united. As Heinze
shows ("Die Lehre vom Logos in der Griechischen
Philosophic," 1872, pp. 204 et seq.), this doctrine
touches upon the Platonic doctrine of ideas as well
as the Stoic doctrine of the yeviKurardv ti and the
Neo -Pythagorean doctrine of the type that served at
the creation of the world; and in the shaping of the
/l(5yof TOfiEvg it touches upon the Heraclitean doctrine
of strife as the moving principle. Philo's doctrine
of dead, inert, non-existent matter harmonizes in its
essentials with the Platonic and Stoic doctrine. His
account of the Creation is almost identical with that
of Plato; he follows the hitter's "Timseus" pretty
closely in his exposition of the world as having no
beginning and no end ; and, like Plato, he places the
creative activity as well as the act of creation out-
side of time, on the Platonic ground that time begins
only with the world. The influence of Pythago-
rism appears in the numeral-symbolism, to which

Philo JudeeuB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo frequently recurs. The Aristotcliau contrast
between liivafii^ and h-rc/.cxeta ("Metaphysics," iii.
73) is found in Philo, "De Allegoriis Leguni," i. 64
(on Aristotle see Freudenthal in "Monatsschrift,"
1875. p. 233). In his psychology he adopts cither the
Stoic division of the soul into eight faculties, or the
Platonic trichotomy of reason, courage, and desire,
or the Aristotelian triad of the vegetative, emotive,
and rational souls. The doctrine of the body as the
source of all evil corresponds entirely with the
Neo-Pythagorean doctrine: the soul he conceives as
a divine emanation, similar to Plato's vovg (see
Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 189 et seq.). His ethics and
allegories are based on Stoic ethics and allegories.
Although as a philosopher Philo must be classed
with the eclectics, he was not therefore merely a com-
piler. He made his philosophy the means of de-
fending and justifying the Jewish religious truths.
These truths he regarded as fi.xed and determinate;
and philosophy was merely an aid to truth and a
means of arriving at it. With this end in view
Philo chose from the philosophical tenets of the
Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with
the Jewish religion, as, e.g., the Aristotelian doc-
trine of the eternity and indestructibility of the
world.

Although he devoted himself largely to the Greek
language and literature, especially Greek philoso-
phy, Philo's national Jewish education is also a fac-
tor to be taken into account. While he read the Old
Testament chiefly in the Greek trans-
His Knowl- lation, not deeming it necessary to use

edge of the Hebrew te.xt because he was imder

Hebrew, the wrong impression that the Greek
corresponded with it, he nevertheless
understood Hebrew, as his numerous etymologies of
Hebrew names indicate (see Siegfried, "Philonische
Studien," in Merx, "Archiv filr Wissenschaftliche
Erforschung des A. T." 1871, ii. 2, 143-168; id^yn,
"Hebraische Worterklarungen des Philo und Ihre
Einwirkung auf die KirchenvSter," 1863). These
etymologies are not in agreement with modern He-
brew philology, but are along the lines of the etymo-
logic midrash to Genesis and of the earlier rabbinism.
His knowledge of the Halakah was not profound.
B. Ritter, however, has shown (I.e.) that he was
more at home in this than has been generally assumed
(see Siegfried's review of Ritter's book in "Jenaer
Literaturzeituug," 1879, No. 35, where the principal
points of Philo's indebtedness to the Halakah are
enumerated). In the Haggadah, however, he was
very much at home, not only in that of the Bible, but
especially in that of the earlier Palestinian and the
Hellenistic Midrash (Frankel, "Ueber den Einfluss
der Paliistinensischen Exegese auf die Alexaudri-
nische Hermeneutik," 1851, pp. 190-200; SchUrer,
I.e. p. 540: "De Vita Mosis," i. 1 [ii. 81]).

His Methods of Exegesis: Philo bases his doctrines
on the Old Testament, which he considers as the
source and standard not only of religious truth but
in general of all truth. Its pronouncements are for
him divine pronouncements. They are the words
of the kpbr ?.6}'n(, ^cior '/.dyo^, bpdu^ }^yo^{"' De Agricul-
turaNoe,"gl2[i. 308]; " De Somniis," i. 681, ii. 25)
uttered sometimes directly and sometimes through
the mouth of a prophet, especially through Moses,

wiiom Philo considers the real medium of revelation,
while the other writers of the Old Testament appear
as friends or pupils of Moses. Although he distin-
guishes between the words uttered by God Himself,
as the Decalogue, aud the edicts of Moses, as the
special laws (" De Specialibus Legibus," §§ 2 et seq.
[ii. ZQOet seq.] ; " De Pra?miis et Pa'nis,"§ 1 [ii. 408]),
he does not carry out this distinction, since he be-
lieves in general that everything in the Torah is of
divine origin, even the letters and accents (" De Mu-
tatione Nominum," § 8 [i. 587]). The extent of his
canon can not be exactly determined (comp. Horne-
mann, " Observationes ad lUustrationem Doctrin.t
de Canone V. T. ex Philone," 1776; B. Pick.
"Philo's Canon of the O. T.," in "Jour, of Excg.
Society," 1895, pp. 126-143; C. Bissel, "The Canon
of the O. T.," in " Bibliotheca Sacra," Jan., 1886. pp.
83-86; and the more recent introductions to the Old
Testament, especially those of Buhl, "Canon and
Text of the O. T. " 1891, pp. 17, 43, 45 ; Ryle, " Philo
and Holy Script," 1895, pp. xvi.-xxxv. ; and other
references in Schilrcr, I.e. p. 547, note 17). He does
not quote Ezekiel, Daniel, Canticles, Ruth, Lamen-
tations, Ecclesiastes, or Esther (on a quotation from
Job see E. Kautzsch, "De Locis V. T. a Paulo
Apostolo Allegatis," 1869, p. 69; on Philo's manner
of quoting see Siegfried, I.e. p. 162). Philo regards
the Bible as the source not only of religious revela-
tion, but also of philosophic truth; for, according
to him, the Greek philosophers also have borrowed
from the Bible: Heraclitus, according to "Quis
Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]; Zeno,
according to "Quod Omnis Probus Liber," § 8 [ii.
454].

Greek allegory had preceded Philo in this field.
As the Stoic allegorists sought in Homer the basis
for their philosophic teachings, so the Jewish alle-
gorists, and especially Philo, went to the Old Testa-
ment. Following the methods of Stoic allegory,

they interpreted the Bible philosoph-

Stoic ically (on Philo's predecessors In the

Influence, domain of the allegoristic Midrash

among the Palestinian and Alexan-
drian Jews, see Siegfried, I.e. pp. 16-37). Philo bases
his hermeneutics on the assumption of a twofold
meaning in the Bible, the literal and the allegorical
(comp. "Quod Deus Sit Immutabilis," g 11 [i. 280];
"De Somniis," i. 40 [i. 656]). He distinguishes the
pTiTTj Kal (pavepa a7v66oaic (" De Abrahamo," § 36 [ii. 29
et seq.]), "ad litteram"in contrast to "allegorice"
(" Quaestioues in Genesin," ii. 21). The two inter-
pretations, however, are not of equal importance:
the literal sense is adapted to human needs; but the
allegorical sense is the real one, which only the ini-
tiated comprehend. Hence Philo addresses himself
to the iihtyTai ("initiated ") among his audience, by
whom he expects to be really comprehended (" De
Cherubim," § 14 [i. 47]; "De Somniis," i. 33 [i.
649]). A special method is requisite for determin-
ing the real meaning of the words of Scripture
("Canons of Allegory," " De VictimasOfferentibus,"
§ 5 [ii. 255] ; "Laws of Allegory," " De Abrahamo,"
§ 15 [ii. 11]); the correct application of this method
determines the correct allegory, and is therefore
called "the wise architect" (" De Somniis," ii. 2 [i.
660]). As a result of some of these rules of inter-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo JudaeuB

prctatinn the literal sense of certain passages of
the Bible must be excluded altogether; e.g., passages
in which according to a literal inter-
Attitude pretation something unworthy is said
Toward of God ; or in which statements are
Literal made tlmt are unworthy of the Bible,
Meaning, senseless, contradictory, or inadmissi-
ble; or in which allegorical expres-
sions are used for the avowed purpose of drawing
the reader's attention to the fact that the literal sense
is to be disregarded.

There are in addition special rules that not only
direct the reader to recognize the passages wliich
demand an allegorical interpretation, b>it help the
initiated to find the correct and intended meaning.
These passages are such as contain: (1) the doubling
of a phrase; (2) an apparently superfluous ex-
pression in the text; (3) the repetition of statements
previously made; (4) a change of phraseology — all
these phenomena point to something special that the
reader must consider. (5) An entirely different
meaning may also be found by a different combination
of the words, disregarding the ordinarily accepted
division of the sentence in question into phrases
and clauses. (6) The synon5Mns must be carefully
studied; e.r/., why Idbq is used in one passage and
ykvoq in another, etc. (7) A play upon words must be
utilized for finding a deeper meaning; e.y., sheep
(■n-pSfiarov) stand for progress in knowledge, since
they derive their name from the fact of their pro-
gressing (Trpofiaiveiv), etc. (8) A definite allegorical
sense may be gathered from certain particles, ad-
verbs, prepositions, etc. ; and in certain cases it
can be gathered even from (9) the parts of a word ;
e.g., from rJm in 6idXevKoq. (10) Every word must
be explained in all its meanings, in order that
different interpretations may be found. (11) The
skilful interpreter may make slight changes in a
word, following the rabbinical rule, "Read not so,
but so " (Ber. 10a). Philo, therefore, changed ac-
cents, breathings, etc., in Greek words. (12) Any
peculiarity in a phrase justifies the assumption that
some special meaning is intended; e.g., where iiia
(" one ") is used instead of np6)Ti^ (" first " ; Gen. i. 5),
etc. Details regarding the form of words are very
important: (13) the number of the word, if it show-s
any peculiarity in the singular or the plural; the
tense of the verb, etc. ; (14) the gender of the
noun; (15) the presence or omission of the article;
(16) the artificial interpretation of a single expres-
sion ; (17) the position of the verses of a passage ; (18)
peculiar verse-combinations; (19) noteworthy omis-
sions; (20) striking statements; (21) numeral sym-
bolism. Philo found much material for this 83'm-
bolism in the Old Testament, and he developed it
more thoroughly according to the methods of the
Pythagoreans and Stoics. He could follow in many
points the tradition handed down by his allegorizing
predecessors ("Dc Vita Contemplativa," § 8 [ii.
481]).

Philo regards the singular as God's number and
the basis for all numbers ("De Allegoriis Legum,"
ii. 12 [i. 66]). Two is the number of schism, of that
which has been created, of death ("De Opificio
Mundi, § 9 [i. 7] ; " De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44] ;
*'De Somniis," ii. 10 [i. 688]). Three is the number

of the bodyC'De Allegoriis Legum," i. 2 [i. 44])
or of the Divine Being in connection with His fun-
damental powers (" De Sacrificiis Abe-
Views on lis et Caini," ^15 [i. 173]). Four is
Numbers, potentially what ten is actually, the
perfect number (" De Opificio Mundi,"
^^ 15, 16 [i. 10, 11], etc.); but in an evil sense
four is the number of the passions, Tr^af^T/ ("De Con-
gressu Quserendtt; Eruditionis Gratia." § 17 [i. 532]).
Five is the number of the senses and of sen.sibilitj'
("De Opificio Mundi," § 20 [i. 14], etc.). Six, the
product of the masculine and feminine numbers 3x2
and in its parts equal to 3-f-3, is the symbol of the
movement of organic beings (" De Allegoriis Legum, "
i. 2 [i. 44]). Seven has the most various and mar-
velous attributes (" De Opificio Mundi," ^g 30-43 [i.
21 et seq.] ; comp. I. G. MQller, "Philo unddie Welt-
sch5pfung," 1841, p. 211). Eight, the number of the
cube, has many of the attributes determined by the
Pythagoreans (" Quoestiones in Genesin," iii. 49 [i.
223, Aucher]). Nine is the number of strife, ac-
cording to Gen. xiv. (" De Congressu Q'u. Eruditionis
Gratia," § 17 [i. 532]). Ten is the number of per-
fection (" De Plautatione NoK," § 29 [i. 347]). Philo
determines also the values of the numbers 60, 70,
and 100, 12, and 120. (22) Finally, the symbolism of
objects is very extensive. The numerous and
manifold deductions made from the comparison of
objects and the relations in which they stand come
very near to confusing the whole system, this being
prevented only by assigning predominance to certain
forms of comparison, although others of secondary
importance are permitted to be made side by side
with them. Philo elaborates an extensive symbol-
ism of proper names, following the example of the
Bible and the Midrash, to which he adds manj' new
interpretations. On the difference between the
physical and ethical allegory, the first of which
refers to natural processes and the second to the
psychic life of man, see Siegfried, I.e. p. 197.

Philo 's teaching was not Jewish, but was derived
from Greek philosophy. Desiring to convert it into
a Jewish doctrine, he applied the Stoic mode of alle-
goric interpretation to the Old Testament. No one
before Philo,. except his now forgotten Alexandrian
predecessors, had applied this method to the Old
Testament — a method that could produce no lasting
results. It was attacked even in Alexandria (" De
Vita Mosis," iii. 27 [ii. 168]), and disappeared after
the brief florescence of Jewish Hellenism.

His Doctrine of God: Philo obtains his theol-
ogy in two ways: by means of negation^nd by posi-
tive assertions as to the nature of God (comp. Zeller,
"Philosophie der Griechen," 3d ed., iii., § 2, pp.
353-360; Drummond, "Philo Jud8eus,"ii. 1-64. Lon-
don, 1888). In his negative statement he tries to
define the nature of God in contrast to the world.
Here he can take from the Old Testament only cer-
tain views of later Jewish theology regarding God's
sublimity transcending the world (Isa. Iv. 9), and
man's inability to behold God (Ex. xxxii. 20 et seq.).
But according to the conception that predominates
in the Bible God is incessantly active in the world,
is filled with zeal, is moved by repentance, and
comes to aid His people ; He is, therefore, cntirelj'
different from the God described by Philo. Philo

Fhilo Judaens

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

does not consider God similar to heaven or the world
or man; He exists neither in time nor space; He has
no human attributes or emotions. Indeed, He has
no attributes whatever (dT/otf), and in consequence
no name (a^pjyrof), and for that reason he can not be
perceived by man {aKara/j^-roi). He can not change
(drpf^TTOf) : He is always the s&me{ai6to(). He needs
no other being {xp',K<^^ ov^evdc 'o TopdTav), and is self-
sufficient (eni-rCi Uavdc). He can never perish (aodap-
Tof). He is the simply existent (6 uv, to dv), and as
such has no relations with any other being (to yap ri
6v iariv ovxi tuv ~p6q ti).

It is evident that this is not the God of the Old
Testament, but the idea of Phito designated as Geoc,
in contrast to matter. Nothing remained, therefore,
but to set aside the descriptions of God in the Old
Testament by means of allegory. Fhilo character-
izes as A monstrous impiety the anthropomorphism
of the Bible, which, according to the literal mean-
ing, ascribes to God hands and feet, eyes and ears,
tongue and windpipe (" De Confusione Linguarum,"
§ 27 [i. 425]). Scripture, he says, adapts itself to
human conceptions {ib.)\ and for pedagogic reasons
God is occasionally represented as a man ("Quod
Deus Sit Immutabilis," § 11 [i. 281]). The same
holds good also as regards His anthropopathic at-
tributes. God as such is untouched by unreason-
able emotions, as appears, e.g., from E.\. ii. 12, where
Moses, torn by his emotions, perceives God alone to
be calm ("'De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 12 [i. 943] ).
He is free from sorrow, pain, and all such affections.
But He is frequently represented as endowed with
human emotions; and this serves to explain expres-
sions referring to His repentance.
Views on Similarly God can not exist or change
Anthropo- in space. He has no " where " (toi', ob-
mor- tained by changing the accent in Gen.

phisms. iii. 9: "Adam, where [ttov] art thou?"),
is not in any place. He is Himself the
place; the dwelling-place of God means the same
as God Himself, as in the Mishnah ClpO =: " God is "
(comp. Freudenthal, " Hellenistische Studien," p.
73), corresponding to the tenet of Greek philosophy
that the existence of all things is summed up in God
(comp. SchQrer, "Der Begriff des Himmelreichs,"
in "Jahrbuch fiir Protestantisclie Theologie," 1876,
i. 170). The Divine Being as such is motionless, as
the Bible indicates by the phrase "God stands"
(Deut. v. 31 ; Ex. xvii. 6). It was difficult to har-
monize the doctrine of God's namelessness with the
Bible; and Philo was aided here by his imperfect
knowledge of Greek. Not noticing that the Sep-
tuagint translated the divine name Yiiwii by Kvfuoc,
he thought himself justified in referring the two
names Stof and Kipioc to the two supreme divine
faculties.

Philo's transcendental conception of the idea of
God precluded the Creation as well as any activity
of God in the world; it entirely separated God from
man; and it deprived ethics of all religious basis.
But Philo, who was a pious Jew, could not accept
the un-Jewish, pagan conception of the world and
the irreligious attitude which would have been the
logical result of his own system ; and so he accepted
the Stoic doctrine of the immanence of God, which
led him to statements opposed to those he hud

previously made. While he at first had placed God
entirely outside of the world, he now regarded Him
as the only actual being therein. God is the only
real citizen of the world ; all other beings are merely
sojourners therein ("De Cherubim," i^ 34 [i. 661]).
While God as a transcendent being could not
operate at all in the world, He is now considered
as doing everything and as the only cause of all
things ("De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 3 [i. 88]). He
creates not only once, but forever {ib. i. 13 [i. 44]).
He is identical with the Stoic "efficient cause." He
is impelled to activity chiefly by His goodness,
which is the basis of the Creation. God as creator
is called Qe6c (from Tltiz/fn; comp. "De Confusione
Linguarum," § 27 [i. 425]). This designation also
characterizes Him in conformity with His goodness,
because all good gifts are derived from God, but
not evil ones. Hence God must call upon other
powers to aid Him in the creation of man, as He
can have nothing to do with matter, which con-
stitutes the physical nature of man : with evil
He can have no connection ; He can not even pun-
ish it. God stands in a special relation to man.
The human soul is God's most characteristic work.
It is a reflex of God, a part of the divine reason,
just as in the system of the Stoics the human soul is
an emanation of the World-Soul. The life of the
soul is nourished and supported b^' God, Philo using
for his illustrations the figures of the light and the
fountain and the Biblical passages referring to these.
Doctrine of the Divine Attributes : Al-
though, as shown above, Philo repeatedly endeav-
ored to find the Divine Being active and acting in
the world, in agreement with Stoicism, yet his Pla-
tonic repugnance to matter predominated, and con-
sequently whenever he posited that the divine could
not have any contact with evil, he defined evil as
matter, with the result that he placed God outside
of the world. Hence he was obliged to separate
from the Divine Being the activity displayed in the
world and to transfer it to the divine powers, which
accordingly were sometimes inherent in God and
at other times exterior to God. This doctrine, as
worked out by Philo, was composed of very differ-
ent elements, including Greek philosophy, Biblical
conceptions, pagan and late Jewish views. The
Greek elements were borrowed partly from Platonic
philosophy, in so far as the divine powers were con-
ceived as types or patterns of actual things ("arche-
typal ideas "), and partly from Stoic philosophy, in so
far as tho.se powers were regarded as the efficient
causes that not only represent the types of things,
but also produce and maintain them. Thej' fill the
whole world, and in them are contained all being and
all individual things ("De Confusione Linguarum,"
§ 34 [i. 481]). Philo endeavored to harmonize this
conception with the Bible by designating these
powers as angels ("De Gigantibus," § 2 [i. 263];
"De Somniis," i. 22 [i. 641 et seq.]), whereby he des-
troyed an essential characteristic of the Biblical view.
He further made use of the pagan conception of
demons (ib.). And finally he was influenced by the
late Jewish doctrine of the throne-chariot (^£^•yo
nSD'IO), in connection with which he in a way de-
taches one of God's fundamental powers, a point
which will be discussed further on. In the Haggadah

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fhilo Judaeus

this fundainontal power dividi-s into two contrasts,
which modify each other: D^DHin moi ]nr[ mO-
In the same way Philo contrasts the two divine at-
tributes of goochiess and power {ayadd-r/g and apx'/,
(Vivdfiii ;);ut)ia7iK// and avynoAaaTiKij). They are also ex-
pressed in the names of God; but Philo's explanation
is confusing. " Yiiwii " really designates God as the
kind and merciful one, wiiile "Elohim" designates
liim as the just one. Philo, however, interpreted
"Elohim" (LXX. Ofof) as designating the "cosmic
power " ; and as he considered tiie Creation the most
important proof of divine goodness, he found the
idea of goodness especially in Qeoq (" De Migratione
Abrahami," ti, '62 [i. 4G4]). On the parallel activity
of the two powers and the symbols used therefor
in Scripture, as well as on their emanation from
God and their further development into new pow-
ers, their relation to God and the world, their
part in the Creation, their tasks toward man, etc.,
see Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 214-218. Philo's expo-
sition here is not entirely clear, as he sometimes con-
ceives the powers to be independent hypostases and
sometimes regards them as immanent attributes of
the Divine Being.

The Logos : Philo considers these divine powers
in their totality also, treating them as a single
independent being, which he designates "Logos."
This name, which he borrowed from Greek philos-
ophy, was first used by Heraclitus and then adopted
l)y the Stoics. Philo's conception of the Logos is
influenced by both of these schools. From Heracli-
tus he borrowed the conception of the "dividing
Logos" {'Ao^oq TOfievQ), which calls the various objects
into existence by the combination of contrasts (" Quis
Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]), and
from Stoicism, the characterization of the Logos as
the active and vivifying power. But Philo borrowed
also Platonic elements in designating the Logos
as the "idea of ideas" and the "archetypal idea"
(" De Migratione Abrahami," § 18 [i. 4o2] ; "Dc Spe-
cialibus Legibus," § 36 [ii. 333]). There are, in ad-
dition. Biblical elements: there are Biblical passages
in which the word of Yiiwii is regarded as a power
acting independently and existing by itself, as
Isa. Iv. 11 (comp. Matt. x. 13; Prov. xxx. 4); these
ideas were further developed by later Judaism in
the doctrines of the Divine Word creating the world,
the divine throne-chariot and its cherub, the divine
splendor and its shekinali, and tlie name of God as
well as the names of the angels ; and Philo borrowed
from all these in elaborating his doctrine of the
Logos. He calls the Logos the "archangel of many
names," "taxiarch" (corps-commander), the "name
of God," also the "heavenly Adam" (comp. "De
Confusione Linguarum," tij 11 [i. 41 Ij), the "man,
the word of the eternal God." The Logos is also
designated as "high priest," in reference to the ex-
alted position which the high priest occupied after
the Exile as the real center of the Jewish state.
The Logos, like the high priest, is the expiator of
sins, and the mediator and advocate for men: iKerriq
("Quis Rerum Divinarum Hercs Sit," § 42 [i. 501],
and -apnK?j/Toq ("De Vita Mosis," iii. 14 [ii. 155]).
From Alexandrian theology Philo borrowed the idea
of wisdom as the mediator; he thereby somewhat
confused his doctrine of the Logos, regarding wis-

dom as the higher jjrinciple from which the Logos
proceeds, and again coordinating it with the latter.
Philo, in connecting his doctrine of the Logos
with Scripture, first of all bases on Gen. i. 27 the re-
lation of the Logos to God. He trans-
Relation of lates this passage as follows: "lie
the Logos made man after the image of God,"
to God. concluding therefrom that an image
of God existed. This image of God
is the type for all other things (the "Archetypal
Idea " of Plato), a seal impressed upon things. The
Logos is a kind of shadow cast by God, having the
oiitiines but not the blinding light of the Divine
Being.

The relation of the Logos to the divine powers,
especiall}' to the two fundamental powers, must
now be examined. And here is found a twofold
series of exegetic expo.sitions. According to one,
the Logos stands higher than the two powers ; ac-
cording to the otlier, it is in a way the product of
the two i)owers; similarly it occasionally appears
as the chief and leader of the innumerable powers
proceeding from the primal powers, and again as
the aggregate or product of them. In its relation
to the world the Logos appears as the universal
substance on which all things depend ; and from this
point of view the manna (as yeviK<l)TaT6v -i) becomes
a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only
the archetype of things, but also the power that
produces thefn, appearing as such especially under
the name of the Logos -o/zf ;? (" the divider"). It
separates the individual beings of nature from one
another according to their characteristics; but, on the
other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the
individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and
phj^sical attributes. It may be said to have in-
vested itself with the whole world as an inde-
structible garment. It appears as the director and
shepherd of the things in the world
Pneuma- in so far as they are in motion. The
tology. Logos has a special relation to man.
It is the type ; man is the coi)y. The
similarity is found in the mind (volx) of man. For
the shaping of his nous, man (earthly man) has the
Logos (the "heavenly man") for a pattern. The
latter officiates here also as "the divider" (rofievg),
separating and uniting. The Logos as " interpreter "
announces God's designs to man, acting in this
respect as prophet and priest. As the latter, he
softens punishments by making the merciful power
stronger than the punitive. The Logos has a spe-
cial mystic influence upon the human soul, illu-
minating it and nourishing it with a higher spiritual
food, like the manna, of which the smallest piece has
the same vitality as the whole.

Cosmology : Philo's conception of the matter
out of which the world was created is entirely un-
Biblical and un-Jewish; he is here wholly at one
with Plato and the Stoics. According to him, God
does not create the world-stuff, but finds it ready
at hand. God can not create it, as in its nature it
resists all contact with the divine. Sometimes, fol-
lowing the Stoics, he designates God as "tlieetticient
cause, " and matter as " the affected cause. " He
seems to have found this conception in the Bible
(Gen. i. 2) in the image of the spirit of God hover-

Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ing over the waters ("De Opificio Mundi," § 2 [i.
12]). On the connection of these doctrines with the
speculations on the n'K'Kia n\r]}^. see Siegfried. I.e.
pp. 230 et 8fq.

Philo. again like Plato and the Stoics, conceives
of matter as having no attributes or form; this,
however, does not harmonize with the assumption
of four elements. Philo conceives of matter as evil,
on the ground that no praise is meted out to it in
Genesis ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 32
[i. 49.^]). As a result, he can not posit an actual
Creation, but only a formation of the world, as Plato
holds. God appears as demiurge and cosmoplast.

Philo frequently compares God to an architect or
gardener, who formed the present world (the Koafio^
a/ffi^vrtif )accordiug to a pattern, the ideal world (Koa/unc
:■■-■<). Philo takes the details of his story of the
Creation entirely from Gen. i. A specially impor-
tant position is assigned here to the Logos, which
executes the several acts of the Creation, as God
can not come into contact with matter, actually
creating only the soul of the good.

Anthropology. The Doctrine of Man as a Nat-
ural Being : Philu regards the physical natuie of man
as something defective and as an obstacle to his de-
velopment that can never be fully surmounted, but
still as something indispensable in view of the
nature of his being. With the body the necessity
for food arises; as Philo explains in various alle-
gories. The body, however, is also of advantage
to the spirit, since the spirit arrives at its knowledge
of the world by means of the five senses. But
higher and more important is the spiritual nature of
man. This nature has a twofold tendency: one
toward the sensual and earthly, which Philo calls
sensibilit}' (aia^/juig), and one toward the spiritual,
which he calls reason (voix). Sensibility has its seat
in the body, and lives in the senses, as Philo elabo-
rates in varying allegoric imagery. Connected with
this corporealit)^ of the sensibility are its limitations;
but, like the body itself, it is a necessity of nature,
the channel of all sense-perception. Sensibility,
however, is still more in need of being guided by
rea.son. Reason is that part of the spirit whicli
looks toward heavenly things. It is the highest,
the real divine gift that has been infused into man
from without (" De Opiticio Mundi," i. 15; "De Eo
Quod Deterius Potiori Insidiatur," i. 206); it is the
masculine nature of the soul. The voi;f is originally
at rest; and when it begins to move it produces the
several phenomena of mind ih^vfiT/nnra). The prin-
cipal powers of the voif are judgment, memory,
and language.

Man as a Moral Being : More important in Philo 's
system is the doctrine of the moral development of
man. Of this he distinguishes two conditions: (1)
that before time was, and (2) that since the begin-
ning of time. In the pretemporal condition the
soul was without body, free from earthly matter,
■without sex, in the condition of the generic (yeviKoc)
nmn, morally perfect, i.e., without flaws, but still
striving after a higher purit}'. On entering upon
time the soul loses its punt)' and is confined in a
bodj'. The nous becomes earthly, but it retains a
tendency toward something higher. Philo is not
entirely certain whether the body in itself or merely

in its preponderance over the spirit is evil. But
the body in any case is a source of danger, as it
easily drags the spirit into the bonds of sensibility.
Here, also, Philo is undecided whether sensibility is
in itself evil, or whether it may merely lead into
temptation, and must itself be regarded as a mean
(/ifffov). Sensibility in any case is the source of the
passions and desires. The passions attack the sensi-
bility in order to destroj' the whole soul. On their
numberand their sj'mbolsin Scripture see Siegfried,
I.e. pp. 245 et seq. The "desire "is either the lustful
enjoyment of sensual things, dwelling as such in the
abdominal cavity (Koi?Ja), or it is the craving for this
enjoyment, dwelling in the breast. It connects the
nous and the sensibility, this being a psychologic
necessity, but an evil from an ethical point of view.

According to Philo, man passes through .several
steps in his ethical development. At first the sev-
eral elements of the human being are in a state of
latency, presenting a kind of moral neutrality whicli
Philo designates by the terms "naked " or "medial."
The nous is nude, or stands midway so long as it
has not derided either for sin or for virtue. In this
period of moral indecision God endeavors to prepare
the earthly nous for virtue, presenting to him in the
"earthly wisdom and virtue" an image of heavenly
wisdom. But man (nous) quickly leaves this state
of neutrality. As soon as he meets the woman
(sensibility) he is filled with desire, and passion en-
snares him in the bonds of sensibility. Here the
moral duties of man arise; and according to his at-
titude there are two opposite teadencies in hu-
manity.

Ethics. Sensual Life : The soul is first aroused
by the stimuli of sensual pleasures; it begins to turn
toward them, and then becomes more and more in-
volved. It becomes devoted to the body, and begins
to lead an intolerable life {tiiog a,3iuToc). It is inflamed
and excited by irrational impulses. Its condition is
restless and painful. The sensibility endures, ac-
cording to Gen. iii. 16, great pain. A continual
inner void produces a lasting desire which is never
satisfied. All the higher aspirations after God
and virtue are stifled. The end is complete moral
turpitude, the annihilation of all sense of dut}', the
corruption of the entire soul: not a particle of the
soul that might heal the rest remains whole. The
worst consequence of this moral death is, according
to Philo, absolute ignorance and the loss of the
power of judgment. Sensual things are placed
above spiritual; and wealth is regarded as the high-
est good. Too great a value especially is placed
upon the human nous; and things are wrongly
judged. Man in his folly even opposes God, and
thinks to scale heaven and subjugate the entire
earth. In the field of politics, for example, he at-
tempts to rise from the position of leader of the
people to that of ruler (Philo cites Joseph as a type
of this kind). Sensual man generally employs his
intellectual powers for sophistry, perverting words
and destroying truth.

Ascent to Reasons Abraham, the "immigrant," is
the symbol of man leaving sensuality to turn to
reason ("De Migratione Abrahami," § 4 [i. 439]).
There are three methods whereby one can rise toward
the divine: through teaching, through practise

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judaeus

(uaKTjaic), and througli natural goodness (ooioTijg).
On Philo's predecessors on this point see Siegfried,
I.e. p. 257.

The metliod through teaching begins Avith a pre-
liminary presentiment and hope of higher knowl-
edge, Avhich is especially exemplified in Enos. The
real "teaching" is represented in the case of Abra-
ham, the " lover of learning." The pupil has to pass
througli three stages of instruction. The first is that
of "physiolog}'," during which physical nature is
studied. Abraham was in this stage until he went to
Ha ran ; at this time he was the " physiologer " of na-
ture, the "meteorologer. " Recognizing his short-
comings, he went to Ilaran, and turned to the study
of the spirit, devoting himself at first to the prepara-
tory learning that is furnished by general education
{iyKiK/.to^ :vai6cia); this is most completely anah'zed
by Philo in "De Congre.ssu Quaerendie Eruditionis
Gratia," § 3 [i. 520]. The pupil must study gram-
mar, geometry, astronomy, rhetoric, music, and
logic; but he can never attain to more than a partial
mastery of these sciences, and this only -with the
utmost labor.. He reaches only the boundaries of
knowledge (eTrtarT/fir/) proper, for the "soul's irra-
tional opinions" still follow him. He sees only the
reflection of real science. The knowledge of the
medial arts (/leaai Tex^nt) ofter^ proves erroneous.
Hence the "lover of learning " will endeavor to be-
come a "wise man." Teaching will have for its
highest stage philosophy, which begins to divide
the mortal from the immortal, finite knowledge from
infinite knowledge. The tendency toward the sen-
suous is given up, and the insufficiency of mere
knowledge is recognized. He perceives that wisdom
{ao(pi(i) is something higher than sophistry {ao(piaTEia)
and that the only subject of contemplation for the
wise is ethics. He attains to possession (kytjoic) and
use ixPV'^i-i) ; and at the highest stage he beholds
heavenly things, even the Eternal God Himself.

By the method of practise man strives to attain to
the highest good by means of moral action. The
preliminary here is change of mind (/leravota), the
turning away from the sensual life. This turning
away is symbolized in Enoch, Avho, according to
Gen. v. 24, " was not." Rather than undertake to en-
gage in the struggle with evil it is better for man to
escape therefrom by running away. He can also
meet the passions as an ascetic combatant. Moral
endeavor is added to the struggle. Many dangers
arise here. The body (Egypt), sensuality (Laban
and others), and lust (the snake) tempt the ascetic
warrior. The sophists (Cain, etc.) try to lead him
astray. Discouraged by his labors, the ascetic
flags in his endeavors; but God comes to his aid, as
exemplified in Eliezer, and fills him with love of
labor instead of hatred thereof. Thus the warrior
attains to victor}'. He slays lust as Phinehas slays
the snake; and in this way Jacob ("he who trips
up"), the wrestling ascetic, is transformed into
Israel, who beholds God.

Good moral endowment, however, takes prece-
dence of teaching and practise. Virtue here is not
the result of hard labor, but is the excellent fruit
maturing of itself. Noah represents the prelimi-
nary stage. He is praised, while no really good deeds
are reported of him, whence it may be concluded

that the Bible refers to his good disposition. But
as Noah is praised only in comparison with his
contemporaries, it follows that he is not yet a per-
fect n)an. There are several types in the Bible rep-
resenting the perfect stage. It appears in its purest
form in Isaac. He is perfect from the beginning:
perfection is a part of his nature (cpvai^); and he can
never lose it (av-r/Koog kuI airofxadr/c). With such per-
sons, therefore, the soul is in a state of
Views on rest and joy. Philo's doctrine of vir-
Virtue. tue is Stoic, although he is undecided
whether complete dispassionateness
{cnrd'dEia; " De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 45 [i. 513]) or
moderation {fiETpio-^a^elv; "De Abrahamo," § 44 [ii.
137]) designates the really virtuous condition. Philo
identifies virtue in itself and in general with divine
wisdom. Hence he uses the symbols interchange-
ably for both ; and as he also frequently identifies
the Logos with divine wisdom, the allegoric desig-
nations here too are easily interchanged. The Gar-
den of Eden is " the wisdom of God " and also " the
Logos of God " and " virtue." The fundamental vir-
tue is goodness; and from it proceed four cardinal
virtues — prudence, courage, self-control, and justice
(<pp6vr/aig, dvdpia, au<ppo<svvri, diKaioavvt)) — as the four
rivers proceed, from the river of Eden. An essential
difference between Philo and the Stoics is found in
the fact that Philo seeks in religion the basis for all
ethics. Religion helps man to attain to virtue,
which he can not reach of himself, as the Stoics
hold. God must implant virtue in man ("De Alle-
goriis Legum," i. 53 [i. 73]). Hence the goal of the
ethical endeavor is a religious one: the ecstatic con-
templation of God and the disembodiment of souls
after death.

Hellenistic Judaism culminated in Philo, and
through him exerted a deep and lasting influence on
Christianity also. For the Jews themselves it soon
succumbed to Palestinian Judaism. The develop-
ment that ended in the Talmud offered a surer guar-
anty for the continuance of Judaism, as opposed to
paganism and rising Christianity, than Jewish Hel-
lenism could promise, which, with all its loyalty ta
the laws of the Fathers, could not help it to an inde-
pendent position. The cosmopolitanism of Chris-
tianity soon swept away Hellenistic Judaism, which
could never go so far as to declare the Law super-
fluous, notwithstanding its philosophic liberality.
(For the extent and magnitude of Philo's influence
on Judaism and Christianity see Siegfried, I.e. pp.
275-399.)

Bidliography: Schurer. Gesch.; Siegfried, P7n7o vnn Alex-
andria, etc., 1875. On the Greek MSS. of Philo's extant
works: Schurer, I.e. lil. 493, note 26; Cohn-Wendland, P/it-
loni.s Alexandnni Opera Qiiw Supermnt, vol. i.. pp. 1.-
cxiv.; vol. )!., pp. i.-xxxiv.; vol. iii., pp. l.-xxil. On the indi-
rect sources that may be used for reconstructing the text:
Schurer, i.e. pp. ■t94c(.<eq.,notes28,29. On tninslationsof Phi-
lo's works : Schurer, I.e. p. 496. note 30: Cohn-Wendland. I.e.
vol. i., pp. Ixxx.etseq. Other German translations : M.J [est],
Philox (iemmmelte Schriften Ucbcraetztyheipsic, 18.^)6-73;
M. Friedlander, Ueher die Philanthropie ties Mosaischen
Gesetzes, Vienna, 1880.
T. C. S.

-His Relation to the Halakah : Philo's rela-

tion to Palestinian exegesis and exposition of the
Law is twofold : that of receiver and that of giver.
While his method of interpretation was influenced
by the Palestinian Midrash, he in his turn influenced

Philo Judaeus

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

this Midrash ; for many of bis ideas were adopted
by Palestinian scliolai-s, and are still found scattered
throughout the Talmud and the Midrashim. The
Palestinian Halakah was probably known in Alexan-
dria even before the time of Philo, and was appar-
ently introduced by Judah b. Tabbui, or Joshua b.
Penihyah. who tied from the persecutions of Hyr-
canus to Alexandria, where he remained for some
time. Philo had, moreover, the opportunity of
studyiun Palestinian exegesis in its home; for he
visiteil Jerusalem once or twice, and at these times
could communicate his views and his method of
exegesis to the Palestinian scholars. Furthermore,
later teachers of the Law occasionally visited Alex-
andria, among tliem Joshua b. Hananiah (comp.
Niddah (j9b); and these carried various Philonic
ideas back to Palestine. The same expositions of
the Law and the same Biblical exegesis are very
frequently found, therefore, in Philo and in the
Talmud and 3Iidrashim. The only means of as-
certaining Philo's exact relation to Palestinian
exegesis lies in the determination of the priority of
one of two parallel passages found in both authori-
ties. In the solution of such a problem a distinction
must first be drawn between the Halakah and the
Haggadah.

With regard to the Halakah, which originated in
Palestine, it may be assumed with certainty that the
interpretations and expositions found in Pliilo which

coincide with those of the Halakah

His Debt have been borrowed b}' him from the

to the latter; and his relation to it is, therc-

Halakah, fore, only that of the recipient. Any

influence which he may have exercised
upon it can have been only a negative one, inasmuch
as he aroused the opposition of Palestinian scholars
by many of liis interpretations, and inspired them
to controvert him. Tlie following examples may
serve to elucidate his relation to the Halakah: Philo
says (•' De Specialibus Legibus," ed. Leipsic, § 13, ed.
ilange}' [cited hereafter as M.], 312), in interpreting
Deut. xxii. 23-27, that the distinction made in the
Law as to whether the violence was offered in the
city or in the field must not be taken literally, the
point being whether the girl cried for help and could
have found it, without reference to the place where
she was assaulted. The same view is found in the
Halakah : " One might think that if the deed occurred
in the city, the girl was guilty under all circum-
stances, and that if it took place in the field, she
was invariably innocent. According to Deut. xxii.
27, however, 'the betrothed damsel cried, and there
was none to save her.' This shows that wherever
help may be expected the girl is guilty, whether
the assault is made in tlie city or in the field ; but
where no lielp is to be expected, she is innocent,
whether the assault occurs in the city or in the field "
(Sifre, Deut. 243 [ed. Friedmann, p. 118b]). Piiilo
explains (I.e. g 21 [M. 319-320]) the words "God
delivers him into his hand" (E.x. xxi. 13, Hebr.)as
follows: "A man has secretly committed a premed-
itated murder and lias escaped human justice; but
his act has not been hidden from divine vengeance,
and he shall be punished for it by death. Another
man who lias committed a venial offense, for which
he deserves exile, also has escaped human justice.

This latter man God uses as a tool, to act as the
executioner of the murderer, whom He causes him
to meet and to slay unintentionally. The murderer
has now been punished by death, while his execu-
tioner is exiled for manslaughter; the latter thus
suft'ering the punishment which he has merited be-
cause of his original minor oilense." This same in-
terpretation is found in the Halakah as well (Mak.
10b; comp. also ^lek., Mishpatim, iv. [ed. Weiss,
p. 86a]). In explaining the law given in Deut. xxi.
10-14, Philo says, furthermore ("De Caritate," § 14
[M. 394]), that a captive woman taken in war shall
not be treated as a slave if her captor will not take
her to wife. The same interpretation is found in
the Halakah (Sifre, Deut. 214 [ed. Friedmann, p.
113a]), wliich explains the words "lo tit'amer bah"
(= "thou shalt not do her wrong") to mean, "thou
shalt not keep her as a slave."

Numerous instances are also found in which,
though Philo departs in the main point from the
Halakah, he agrees with it in certain details. Thus,
in interpreting the law set forth in Ex. xxi. 22
("De Specialibus Legibus, "§ 19 [M. 317]) he differs
entirely from the Halakah, except that he says that
the man in question is liable to punishment only in
case he has beaten the woman on the belly. The
Halakah (Mek. I.e. v. [ed. Weiss, p. 90a]) deduces
tliis law from the word "harah"(= "pregnant").

Philo agrees with the Halakah also in his justifi-
cation of various laws. The law given in Ex. xxii.
1, according to which the owner lias the right to
kill a thief, is based by Philo on the assumption that
the thief breaks in with murderous intent, in which
case he would certainly be ready to kill the owner
should the latter try to prevent him from stealing
("De Specialibus Legibus," § 2 [M. 337]). The
ISIishnah (Sanh. viii. 6 and Talmud 72a) gives the
same explanation.

It is especially interesting to note that Philo bor-
rowed certain halakot that have no foundation in
Scripture, regarding them as authoritative interpre-
tations of the law in question. He says, for instance
[I.e. g 5 [M. 304]), that the marriage of a Jew with
a non-Jewish woman is forbidden, no matter of
what nation she be, although the Talmud says ('Ab.
Zarah 36b) that, according to the Pentateuchal law
(Deut. vii. 3), only a marriage with a member of any
of the seven Canaanitish peoples was forbidden, the
extension of this prohibition to all other nations
being merely a rabbinic decree.

The most important feature of Philo's relation to
the Halakah is liis frequent agreement with an
earlier halakah where it differs from a later one.
This fact has thus far remained unnoticed, although
it is most important, since it thus frequently be-
comes possible to determine which portions of the
accepted halakah are earlier and which are later in
date. A few examples may serve to make this
clear. Philo says (" De Caritate," § 14
Agreement [M. 393]), in explaining the law given

with the in Deut. xxi. 10-14, regarding a

Earlier woman taken captive in war, that she
Halakah. must cut her nails. This interpreta-
tion of verse 12 of the same chapter
agrees with the earlier halakah. represented by H.
Eliezer (Sifre, Deut. 212 [ed. Friedmann, p. 112b]);

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Philo Judseus

])ut tlie later lialakah (Sifro, I.e.), represcnled
by K. Akiba, ('.\i)laiiis the words "wc-'asctah
et-ziparnolia " as meaning "she shall let lier nails
grow. " Again, Philo says (" De Specialibus Legibus, "
§ 19 [M. 317j), in interpreting the law of Ex. xxi.
18-19: "If the person in question lias so far recov-
ered from his hurt that lie is able to go out again,
although it may be necessary for him to be assisted
by another or to use crutches, his assailant is no
longer liable to jninishment, even in case his victim
subsequently dies; for it is not absolutely certain
that liis death is a result of the blow, since he has
recovered in the meantime." Hence Philo takes tlic
phrase " upon his stall " (ib. verse 19) literally. In
like manner he interprets {I.e. § 2 [M. 336-337]) the
passage "If the sun be risen upon him " (ib. xxii. 3)
as follows: "If the owner catches the thief before
sunrise he may kill him; but after the sun has risen,
he no longer has this right." Both these explana-
tions by Philo contradict the accepted halakah,
which interprets the passages Ex. xxi. 19, xxii. 3,
as well as Deiit. xxii. 17, figuratively, taking the
phrase "upon his staff" to mean "supported by his
own strength," and interpreting the passage "If the
sun be risen upon him" to mean "when it is clear as
daylight that the thief would not have killed the
owner, even had the latter prevented him from the
robber}^" (conip. Mek., Mishpatim, vi. [ed. Wei.ss,
p. 88b]). Philo here follows the earlier halakah,
whose representative, R. Eliezer (Sifre, Deut. 237
[ed. Friedmann, p. l'18a]), saj^s "debarim ki-keta-
bam " (="the phrases must be taken literally").
Although only Deut. xxii. 17 is mentioned in Ket.
46a and Yer. Ket. 28c in connection with R. Eliezer's
statement, it is not expressly said that such state-
ment must not be applied to the other two phrases;
and it may be inferred from Philo that these three
phrases, wliich were explained figuratively by R.
Ishniael, were taken literally by the old halakah.

The same agreement between Philo and the earlier
halakah is found in the following examples: Philo
takes the phrases Ex. xxi. 23-25 and Deut. xix. 21,
"eye for eye," "tooth for tooth," etc., literally, say-
ing {I.e. § 33 [M. 329]) that, according to the Mo-
saic law, the " lex talionis " must hold.

Supports This explanation differs from that of

the " Lex the accepted halakah, which interprets

Talionis." the phrases in question as meaning

merely a money indemnity (Mek. I.e.

viii. [ed. Weiss, p. 90b] ; B. K. 93b-94a), whereas

the earlier halakah (as represented by R. Eliezer, B.

K. 94a) says " 'ajin tahat 'ayin mammash " (= "an

eye for an eye " is meant in the literal sense). This

view of the earlier halakali was still known as such

to the later teachers; otherwise the Talmud (B. K.

I.e.) would not have taken special pains to refute this

view, and to prove its incorrectness.

It frequently liappens that when Philo differs
from the Halakah in expounding a law, and gives
an interpretation at variance with it, such divergent
explanation is mentioned as a possible one and is dis-
proved in the Talmud or the lialakic midrashim. This
fact is especially noteworthy, since in many cases it
Tenders possible the reconstruction of the earlier hala-
kah by a comparison with Philo's interpretations,
as is shown by the following example: Philo says
X.— 2

{I.e. § 27 [M. 323J), in discussing the law of Ex. xxi.
28-29, that if an ox known to be vicious kills a per-
son, then the ox as well as its owner shall be sen-
tenced to deatli. Philo interprets the words "his
owner also shall be put to death" {ib. ver.se 29) to re-
fer to "death by legal sentence," although in certain
circumstances tlie Law may exempt the owner from
this penalty and impose a fine instead. The ac-
cepted Halakah, however, explains the phrase in
question to mean that the owner Avill suffer death
at the hand of God, while human justice can punish
him only by a fine, in no case having the right to
])ut him to death because his ox has killed a man
(Mek. I.e. x. [ed. Weiss, p. 93a] ; Sauli. 15a, b).
This interpretation of the Halakah was not, on the
other liaud, imiversally accepted; for in Mek. I.e.
and especially in the Talmud, I.e. it is attacked
in tlie remark: "Perhaps the passage really means
that the owner shall be sentenced to death by a
human court." It appears from this statement as
well as from Sanli. i. 4 (comp. Geiger, "Urschrift,"
pp. 448 et scq.) that the earlier halakah held that the
owner should be sentenced to death. Tliis view
was vigorously opposed by the later halakah, and
was not entirely set aside until a very late date, as
appears from Sauli. I.e.

It is impossible, however, to ascribe to the earlier
Halakah all the interpretations of Philo that are
mentioned and refuted in the Talmud and the hala-
kic midrashim ; and extreme caution must be ob-
served in determining which of Philo's interpreta-
tions that differ from the accepted Halakah are to be
assigned to the earlier one. Many of Philo's ex-
planations are quoted according to the
Influence rulings of the court of Alexandria and
of the to its interpretation of the Law, and
Court of Al- were never recognized in the Pales-
exandria. tiuian Halakah. They are, neverthe-
less, cited as possible interpretations,
and. are refuted in the Talmud and in the 3Iidrashim,
Alexandrian judicial procedure in general being
frequently made an object of criticism.

Philo's relation to the Palestinian haggadic exe-
gesis is different, for it can not be said that wherever
Palestinian ideas coincide with his own it must in-
variably have formed the basis of his statements
(comp. Freudentlial, " llellenistische Studien," pp.
57-77). While this dependence may have existed
in numerous instances, it may confidently be afiirmed
that in many other cases the Palestinian sources bor-
rowed ideas which Philo had drawn from Hellenistic
authorities. The following examples may serve to
show that the Palestinian Ilaggadah is indebted to
Philo: Gen. R. viii. 1 explains the passage Gen. i. 27
to mean that God originall}' created man as an An-
DROGYNOS, this idea being first expressed by Philo
in explanation of the same pa.ssage (" Dc Opificio
Muudi," § 24 [M. 17] and more clearly in "De Alle-
goriis Legum," ii. 4 [M. 49]). In like manner the
idea expressed in Gen. R. xiv. 3 of a twofold creation
of man, in part divine and in part earthly, has been
taken from Philo, who was the first to enunciate this
doctrine (" De Opificio Mundi," § 12 [M. 49-50]), while
the interpretation given in Ex. R. xxvi. 1, that Closes
was called by the same carne as the water, is certainly
taken from Philo, who says ("Vita Mosis," i. 4 [M.

Fhinehas

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

83]) that Moses receivetl Lis name because lie was
found in the water, the Egyptian word for whicli is
** mos. "

In the case of many of the ideas and principles
found both in Philo and in the Talmudic and
Midrashic literature it is impossible to
Relation to assert that there has been borrowing
Palestinian on either side; and it is much more
Hagg-adic justifiable to assume that such ideas
iixegesis. originated independently of each
other in Palestine and in Alexandria.
This may have been the case also with the rules of
hermeneutics. The principles which Philo framed
for the allegoiic interpretation of Scripture corre-
spond in part to the exegetic system of the Pales-
tinian Halakah. It is highly probable, however,
that neither borrowed these rules from the other,
but that both, feeling the need of interpreting Scrip-
ture, though for dififerent purposes, independently
invented and formulated these methods while fol-
lowing the same trend of thought. Some examples
of similarity in the rules may be given here. Philo
formulates the principle that a deeper meaning is
implied in the repetition of well-known facts C'De
Congressu Eruditionis Gratia," § 14 [M. 529]); and
this same rule was formulated by Akiba also (Sifre,
Num. 2, according to the reading of Elijah Wilna).
Philo states as another rule that there is no superflu-
ous word in the Bible, and Avherever there is a word
which seems to be such, it must be interpreted.
Hence he explains (" De Profugis," § 10 [:\I. 554]) the
apparently superfluous word in Ex. xxi. 12. This
principle is formulated by Akiba also (Yer. Shab. xix.
17a; comp. also Sanh. 64b, Avhere Akiba deduces the
same meaning from the apparently redundant word
in Num. xv. 31, as Philo does from Ex. xxi. 12).

Bibliography : Z. Frankel, Ueber den Einfluss der Palitsti-
nf.u><ii!chfn Excgcue nufdie Alerandrinv^cheHermeneutik,
pp. liXKia-^, Leipsic. 18.51; idem, Ueber PnU'iatinen.'iUiChe uud
Alesandrinifclie Schriftforscluina, in The Programme of
the lirexlnu Semiiniry, 18.54; Bernhard Ritter. Philo iind
die Halachn. ib. 1879; lirilz, Dax Korbfcxt der Erstlinge bei
Philo, in MniuititKchrift, 1877, pp. 433-442; Carl Siejrlried,
Philo von Alexandria als Au.sleger dei> Alien Testaments,
Jena, 1875: N. J. VVeinstein, Zitr Genenisder Agada: pariii.,
Die Alexandrinii<che Agada, GOttingen, 19f)l.
T. J. Z. L.

PHINEHAS: 1.— Biblical Data : SonofElea-
zar and grandson of Aaron (Ex. vi. 25; 1 Chron. v.
30, vi. 35 [A. V. vi. 4, 50]). His mother is said to
have been one of Putiel's (laughters; and it seems
that he was the only child of his parents (Ex. I.e.).
Pliinehas came into prominence through his execu-
tion of Zimri, son of Sabi, and Cozbi, daughter of
Zur, a Midianite prince, at Shittim, where the Israel-
ites worsiiiped Baal-peor. Through his zeal he also
stayed the plague which had broken out among the
Israelites as a punishment for their sin ; and for this
act be was approved by God and was rewarded
with the divine promi.se that the priesthood should
remain in his family forever (Num. xxv. 7-15).
After this event Phinehas accompanied, as priest,
the expedition sent against the Midianites, the result
of which was the destruction of the latter {ib. xxxi.
6 et set).). When the Israelites had settled in the
land of Canaiin, Phinehas headed the party which
was sent to remonstrate with the tribes of Reuben
and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh because

of the altar that had been built by them east of th
Jordan (Josh. xxii. 13).

At the time of the distribution of the land, Phine
has received a hill in Jlount Ephraim, where hi
father, Eleazar, was buried (ib. xxi v. 33). He i
further mentioned as delivering the oracle to th
Israelites in their war with the Benjamites (Judge
XX. 28). In I Chron. ix. 20 he is said to have beei
the chief of the Korahites who guarded the eutrano
to the sacred tent.

The act of Phinehas in executing judgment am
his reward are sung by the Psalmist (Ps. cvi. 30
31). Phinehas is extolled in the Apocrypha also
" And Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, is the third ii
glory" (Ecclus. [Sirach] xlv. 23); "And he \va;
zealous for the law, even as Phinehas did unt(
Zimn, the son of Salu " (I Mace. ii. 26).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

In Rabbinical Literature : Phinehas i:

highly extolled by the Kabbis for his promptnesi
and energy in executing the prince of the tribe o
Simeon and the Midianitish woman. While evei
Moses himself knew not Avhat to do, and all tli«
Israelites were weeping at the door of the Taber
nacle (Num. xxv. 6), Phinehas .alone was self-pos
sessed and decided. He first appealed to the brav*
men of Israel, asking who would be willing to kil
the criminals at the risk of his own life ; and, receiving
no answer, he then undertook to accomplish the ex
ecution himself (Sifre, Num. 131; Targ. pseudo
Jonathan to Num. xxv. 7). According to Midr
Agada to Num. I.e., however, Phinehas thought thai
the punishment of Zimri was inc\imbeut on him, say ■
ing: "Reuben himself having committed adultery
[Gen. XXXV. 22], none of his descendants is qualifiec
to punish the adulterers; nor can the; punishment bt
inflicted by a descendant of Simeon, because the
criminal is a Simeonite prince; but I, a descend
ant of Levi, who with Simeon destroyed the inhab
itants of Shechem for having committed adultery,
will kill the descendant of Simeon for not having
followed his ancestor's example." Phinehas, having
removed the iron point from his spear (according tc
Pirke R. El. xlvii., it was Moses' spear that Phine-
has had snatched), leaned on the shaft as on a
rod; otherwise the Simeonites would not have al
lowed him to enter the tent. Indeed, the people in-
quired his object in entering the tent, whereupon
he answered that he was about to follow the ex-
ample of Zimri, and was admitted imopposed.
After having stabbed the man and the woman,
Phinehas carried both of them on his spear out of
the tent so thatall the Israelites might see that they
had been justly punished.

Twelve miracles were wrought for Phinehas at
this time, among others the following: he was
aided by divine providence in carrying the two
bodies on his spear (comp. Josephus, "'Ant." iv. 6,
§ 12); the wooden shaft of the spear supported the
weight of two corpses; the lintel of
The the tent was raised by an angel so

Twelve tiiat Phinehas was not required to
Miracles, lower his spear; the blood of the
victims was coagulated so that it
might not drop on Phinehas and render liim un-
clean. Still, when he came out the people of the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Fhiaebaa

tribe of Simeon gatbered around liim with tlie in-
tention of killing him, upon which the angel of
death began to juow down the Israelites with greater
fury tlian before. Phinehas dashed the two corpses
to the ground, saying: "Lord of th(( world, is it
worth while tiiat so many Israelites perish through
these two? " and thereupon the plague was stayed.
An allusion to this incident is made by the Psahn-
ist: "Then stood up Phinclias, and executed judg-
ment" (Ps. cvi. 30), tlie Eabbis explaining tlie word
" wa-yefallcl" as meaning "he disputed witli God."
Tiie archangels were about to eject Phinehas from
liis place, but God said to them: "Leave him; lie
is a zealot, llie son of a zealot [that is, Levi], one
who, like his father [AaronJ, appeases My anger"
(Sanh. 82b; Sifre, l.c.\ Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to
Num. XXV. 7; Tan., Balak, 30; Num. K. xx. 26).
In Ber. 6b, however, the above-quoted passage from
the Psalms is interpreted to mean that Phinehas
prayed to God to check the plague. The ])cople of
all the other tribes, out of envy, mocked Phinehas,
saying : " Have ye seen how a descendant of one who
fattened ["pittein "] calves for sacrifices to the idol
[referring to his grandfather Putiel; comp. Jetiiuo
IN R.\BBiNiCAL Liteuatuke] killed the prince of a
tribe?" God then pointed out that Phinehas was
in reality the son of Eleazar and the grandson of
Aaron (Sanh. I.e.; B. B. 109b; Sifre, I.e.).

Although the priesthood had been previously
given to Aaron and his oiTspring, Phinehas became
a priest only after he had executed Zimri, or, ac-
cording to K. Ashi, after lie had reconciled the tribes
in the allair of the altar (Zel). 101b; comp. Phine-
has, Biblical Data). The priestly jiortions of
every slaughtered animal — the shoulder, the two
cheeks, and the maw (Deut. xviii. 3) — were assigned
by God to the priests solely because of the m(!rit of
Phinehas in killing Zimri and Cozbi: the shoulder
as a reward for carrying (m his shoulder the two
corpses; the two cheeks, for having pleaded with
liis mouth in favor of the Lsraelites; and the maw,
for having stabbed the two adulterers in that part
(Sifre. Deut. 165; Hul. 134b; Midr. Agada to Num.
XXV. 13). Owing to the sad consequences attending
the Israelites' lapse into idolatry, Phinehas pro-
nounced an anathema, under the autliority of the
Unutterable Name and of the writing of the tables,
and in the name of the celestial and terrestrial courts
of justice, against any Israelite who should driniv
the wine of a heathen (Pirke \\. El. xlvii.).

Phinelias accompanied, in the capacity of a priest
specially anointed ("meshuah milhamah") for such
purposes (comp. Deut. xx. 2), the ex-
Other pedition sent by Moses against IMidian.
Exploits. Tlie question why Phinehas was sent
instead of liis father is answered by
the Rabbis in two different ways: (I) Phinehaswent
to avenge liis maternal grandfather, Joseph (with
whom certain rabbis identify Putiel), upon the j\Iid-
ianites who had sold him into Egj'pt (comp. Gen.
xxxvii. 28-36). (2) He went simply because Moses
said that he who began a good deed ought to finish
it; and as Phinehas had been the first to avenge
the Israelites upon the IMidianitcs, it was proper that
he should take part in the war against the latter
(Sifre, Num. 157; Sotah 43a; Num. K. xxii. 4).

Phinehas was one of the two spies sent by Joshua
to explore Jericho, as mentioned in Josh. ii. 1 etstq.,
Caleb being the otlier. This idea is based on the
Masoretic text of verse 4 of tlie same chapter, which
reads" wa-tizpeno " = "and she hi(V him," that is to
say, one spy only; for Phinehas, being a priest, was
invisible like an angel (Num. K. xvi. 1). This is
apparently tlie origin of the Rabbis' identification
of Phinehas with tlie angel of God sent to liochim
(Judges ii. 1; Seder 'Olam, xx. ; Num. R. I.e.;
comp. Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Num. xxv. 12).
On the identification of Phinehas with Elijah see
Elijah in Rabbinical Liteuatlre.

According to B. B. 15a, the last verse of the Book
of Joshua was written by Phinelias. The Raiibis,
however, hold that tlie hill where Eleazar was
buried (see Phinehas, Biblical Data) was not ap-
portioned to Phinehas as a special lot, but was in-
herited by him from his wife, and was therefore
called by his name (B. B. 11 lb). Apart from his
identification with Elijah, Phinehas is considered by
the Rabbis to have attained a very great age, since
according to them he was still living in the time of
Jephthah, 340 years after the Exodus (comp. Judges
xi. 26). In the matter of Jephthah 's vow, Phinehas
is represented in a rather unfavorable light (see
jEPnTiiAii IN Rabbinical Literature). For him
who sees Phinehas in a dream a miracle will be
wrought (Ber. 56b).

E. c. 31. Sel.

2. Son of Eli, the high priest and judge of Israel ;
younger brother of Hoplini. According to I Sam.
ii. 12-17, the two brothers broke the law given in
Lev. vii. 34 (whence they were termed "sons of
Belial ") by striking the llesh-hook in the pot and
taking for themselves whatever meat it brought up,
even against the wish of the sacrificer. As judges
they sinned through licentious conduct with the
women who went to Sliiloh (I Sam. ii. 22). In
punishment for these sins it was announced to Eli
that his sons should perish on the same day {ib. ii. 34) ;
and in the ensuing battle between Israel and the
Philistines both fell beside the Ark (ib. iv. 11).

A posthumous son was born to the wife of Phine-
has, whom .she called Ichabod (I Sam. iv. 19); and
in continuation of the priestlj' genealogy a grand-
nephew of Phinehas, named Aliijah, is mentioned in
connection with the battle of Jonathan against the
Philistines (ib. xiv. 3).

3. Father of Eleazar, a priest who returned from
captivity with Ezra (Ezra viii. 33).

E. G. II. S. O.

PHINEHAS : Guardian of the treasury at Jeru-
salem. In the last days of Jerusalem, in the year
70 C.E., he followed the example of his priestly col-
league Jesus b. Thcbouthi, and betrayed his trust;
collecting many of the linen coats of the priests, their
girdles, much purple and silk wliicli had been pre-
pared for the sacred curtain, and the costly spices
for the holy incense, to save his life he went over
to the Romans (Josephus. "B. J." vi. 8, § 3). He
appears to be identical with the Phinehas mentioned
in the ]\Iishnah Shckalim v. 1. who was guardian of
the sacred wardrobe. See Phinehas b. Samvel.

G. S. Kr.

Phinehas ben Clusoth
Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PHINEHAS BEN CLUSOTH : Leader of the
Idumcaus. Siiuou b. Gioni uutiL-itook several ex-
peilitious into the territory of the Idunieans to req-
uisition provisions for his people. The Idunieans,
after their complaints in Jerusalem had not brought
assistance, formed a band of volunteers numbering
20,000 men, who from that time acted as wildly
and mercilessly as did the Sicarians. Their lead-
ers were Johannes and Jacob b. Sosa, Simon b.
Kathla, and Phinehas ben Clusoth (Josephus, " B. J."
iv. 4. t; 2).

G. ' S. Kr.

PHINEHAS B. HAMA (ironcrally called R.
Phinehas, aiui occasionally Phinehas ha-Ko-
hen) : Palestinian amora of the fourth century ;
born probably in the town of Siknin, where he was
living when his brother Samuel died (Midr. Sliemuel
ix.). He was a pupil of R. Jeremiah, of whose
ritual practises he gives various details {e.g., in Yer.
Kil. 29b; Yer. Hag. 8Ub; Yer. Ket. 41a), and of R.
Hilkiah. He seems also to have lived for a time in
Babylonia, since a R. Phinehas who once went from
that country to Palestine is mentioned in Yer. 'Er.
22d as conversing with R. Judah b. Shalom. This
passage apparently refers to Pliinelias b. Hama, as
a conversation between him and Judah b. Slialom is
also related elsewhere (e.g., Ex. R. xii.); and it like-
wise explains the fact that R. Phinehas transmitted
a halakah by Hisda (Yer. Sanh. 25c). His haggadic
apliorisms, mentioned in B. B. 116a, were, therefore,
probaldy propounded by him during his re.sidence
in Babylonia, and were not derived from Pales-
tine, as Bacher assumes ("Ag. Pal. Amor." p. 311,
note 5).

Wlien the purity of the descent of the Jewish
families in Babylonia was doubted in Palestine,
Phinehas publicly proclaimed in the academy that
in tliis respect Palestine outranked all countries ex-
cepting Babylonia (Kid. 71a). Man^^ halakic sen-
tences by Phinehas have been preserved, most of
which occur in citations by Hananiah {e.g., Yer.
Demai 23b ; Yw. Ma'as. 50c ; Bik. God ; Yer. Pes.
30(1 ; and elsewhere). Phinehas liimself occasionally
transmitted earlier halakic maxims {e.g., Yer. Pes.
29c), and is frequently the autiiority for haggadic
aphorisms by such .scholars as R. Hoshaiah (Lam.
R. proem xxii. ; Cant. R. v. 8, end), Reuben (Tan.,
Kedoshim, l)eginning), Abbaliu (Gen. R. Ixviii.
1;, and many others (comp. Bacher, I.e. p. 314,
note 4).

Pliinelias' own haggadah is very extensive, and
includes many maxims and aphorisms, as well as
homiletic and exegetic interpretations. The follow-
ing citations may serve as examples of liis style:
"Poverty in the liousc of man is more bitter tiian
fifty plagues" (B. B. 116a). "A chaste woman in
the Iiouse protectctli and reconcileth like an altar"
(Tan., Wayisiilah, on Gen. xxxiv. 1). " Wiiile oilier
laws decree that one must renounce his parents on
pledging his allegiance as a follower and .soldier of
tlif king [the reference may be to Matt. x. 35-37],
the Decalogue .saitii: 'Honor tliy father and thy
mother'" (Num. R. viii. 4). "Ps. xxvi. 10 refers
to dice-plaj'crs, who reckon with Die left hand and
sum uj) Willi the right, and thus rob one another"

(Midr. Teh. adloc.). "The name that a man wins
for himself is worth more than that which is given
him by his father and mother"' (Eccl. R. vii. 4).

Bibliography : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 310-344.
E. C. J. Z. L.

PHINEHAS BEN JAIR : Tannaof the fourth
gcneralion ; lived, piobahly at Lydda, in the second
half of the second century; son-in-law of Simeon
ben Yohai and a fellow disciple of Judah I. He
was more celebrated for piety than for learning, al-
though his discussions with his father-in-law (Shab.
33b) evince great sagacity and a profound knowl-
edge of tradition. A haggadah gives the follow-
ing illustration of Phinehas' .scrupulous honesty:
Once two men deposited with him two seahs of
wheat. After a prolonged absence of the depositors
Phinehas sowed the wheat and preserveil the har-
vest. This he did for seven consecutive years, and
when at la.st the men came to claim tlieir deposit
he returned them all the accumulated ajrain (Deut.
R. iii.).

Phinehas is said never to have accepted an invita-
tion to a meal and, after he had attained his major-
it5% to have refused to eat at the table of his father.
The reason given by him for this course of conduct
was that there are two kinds of people r (1) those
who are willing to be hospitable, but can not af-
ford to be so, and (2) those who have the means but
are not willing to extend hospitality to others (Hul.
7b). Judah I. once invited him to a meal, and ex-
ceptionally he decided to accept the invitation; but
on arriving at the house of the patriarch he noticed
in the yard mules of a certain kind the use of which
was forbidden by local custom on account of the
danger in handling them. Thereupon he retraced
his steps and did not return (I.Iul. I.e.).

Special weight was laid by Phinehas upon the
prescriptions relating to the tithe. This feature of
Phinehas' piety is described hyperboHcally in the
Haggadah. The latter relates a story of a mule be-
longing to Phinehas which, having been stolen, was
released after a couple of days on account of its re-
fusal to eat food from which the tithe had not been
taken (Gen. R. xlvi. ; comp. Ab. R. N. viii., end).
To Phineliasisattributcd the abandonment by Judah
I. of his project to abolish the }'ear of release (Yer.
Demai i. 3; Ta'an. iii. 1).

Phinehas draws a gloomy picture of his time.

"Since the destruction of the Temple," he says,

"the members and freemen are put to

Account of sliame, those who conform to the Law

His Own are held in contempt, the violent and

Times. the informer havetlie upper hand, and
no one cares for the ])eop]e or asks
pit}- for them. "We have no hope but in God"
(Sotah 49a). Elsewhere lie says: " Why is it that
in our time the ])rayeis of the Jews are not heard?
Because they do not know the holy name of God"
(Pesik. R. xxii., end; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xci. 15).
Pliinchiis, however, believes in man's perfectibility,
and enumerates the virtues which render man
worthy to receive the Holy Spirit. The Law, he
says, leads to carefulness; carefulness, to diligence;
diligence, to cleanliness; cleanliness, to retirement;
retirement, to purity; purity, to piety; piety, to

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phinehas ben Clusoth
Phylacteries

liumility; Immility, to fear of sin; fear of sin, to
Jiolincss; lioliness, to the reception of tiie lloly
Spirit; and tlie Holy Spirit, to resurrection ("Ab.
Zarah 20b; with some slight variants, Sotah ix. 15).

The Hairiiadah records many miracles jjcrformed

by Phinehas. Among these is that of having passed

on dry ground througli the River Ginai, Avhicli lie

had to cross on Ids way to ransom

Miracles prisoners (Yer. Demai i. 3). Accord-
Attributed ing to another version, Phinehas

to Him. performed this miracle wliile he was
going to the school to deliver a lec-
ture. His pupils, who had followed him, asked if
they might without danger cross the river by the
same way, whereupon Phinelias answered: "Only
those who Iiave never offended any one may do so "
(Hul. 7a). To Phinehas is attributed the authorship
of a later midrash entitled "Tadshe" or "Baraita
de-Rabbi Pinchas ben Ya'ir." The only reasons for
tills ascription are the facts (1) that the midrash be-
gins with Phinehas' explanation of Gen. i. 11, from
which the work derives its name, and (2) that its
seventh chapter commences with a saying of his on
the tree of knowledge (see Ji'^w. Encyc. viii. 578,
s.v. MiDKAsn T-\DSiiE). Phinehas was buried in Ke-
far Biram.

BiBLiOGRAniY : Heilprin, i^cdrrhn-Dorot, ii.; Jellinek, B. H.
iii. lt)4 et seq., v\. '^.i ; lien Cliaiunijn. iv.'S'Ii- P.aclier. .1(7.
'fan. ii. 405 ct seq.; Isaac Halevy, Doroi ha-Rifhinihu, ii. 4S;
Uraunsolnveiger, 7)i(' Ldirer dcr Mischtia, p. 241, Fraiik-
foit-on-the-Main. 1903; Epstein, Beitraye zur JiuHxcltcn
Alterthumskwidc, i., p. x.
W. B. I. Bu.

PHINEHAS B. SAMUEL: The last liigh
priest ; according to the reckoning of Josephus, the
eighty-third since Aaron. He was a wholly un-
worthy person who was not of high-priestly lineage
and who did not even know what the high priest's
office was, but was chosen by lot, and in 67-68 was
dragged by the revolutionary party against his will
from his village Ajihthia, where he was a farmer, to
Jerusalem, to take the place of the deposed j\Iatthias
ben Theophilus. He was clothed in the high-priestly
garments and instructed as to what he had to do on
every occasion. He was an object of ridicule for
the evil-minded, but this godlessness drew tears
from the e^ves of the worthy priests. He mot his
death probably in the general catastrophe. His name
is written in various ways by Josephus ("B. J." iv.
3, ^ 8, ed. Niese). It is su])posed that he was iden-
tical with the Dnj2 mentioned in the Mi.shnah as a
functionary of the Temple ; in this case his correct
name would lie Phineas. But Josephus writes this
Biblical name dilferently. In regard to the Phinehas
mentioned by the Rabbis see Puinehas, guardian of
the treasury.

Binr.iocRAPiiY : Derenliourg, Essai ^•^(r VHistnirede la Pales-
tine, p. 26!»; Ora.lz, Gesch. iii. 4, 751; Scliurer, Gesch. i . 3,
618 ; ii. 3. --_'0.

G. S. Kr.

PHOCYLIDES. See PsEUDO-PnocYLiDE6.

PHRYGIA : Province in Asia iMinor. Anti-
ochus the Great transferred 2,000 Jewish fannlies
from Mesopotamia and Babylonia to Phrygia and
Lydia (Josephus, "Ant." xii.'S. ^ 4). They settled
principally in Laodicca and Apamea. The Christian
Apostles also were familiar with Jews from Phrygia

(Acts ii. 10). Christian teachings easily gained en-
try there on account of the numerous Jews in tlie
country. It is noteworthy that in the Plirygiau city
Mantalos tliere is an inscription written from right
to left (Ramsay, "Th(! Historical Geographj' of Asia
Minor," j). 150, London, 1890). In the Byzantine
period Amorion was a Phrygian city, in which Jews
held the supremacy (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 453, s.v.
JiYZANTiXE E.mi'IKe). Ibu Kliunladhbah also men-
tions a Hisn al-Yahud (= "Jews' Castle " ; Ramsay,
i/>. ]). 445) in this region.

niin.iooRAPUY: Schurer, Ge^ch. lil. 3, .5, 10, 13; W. M. Ram-
say, Tin: Citien and BinhopricH of Plirygia, i., part ii., OHT-
1)7(1, London, 1897.
G. S. Ku.

PHYLACTERIES ("tefillin").— Legal View :
The laws governing the wearing of piiylacteries
were derived by the Rabbis from four Biblical ])as-
sages (Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18; Ex. xiii. 9, 16). While
these passages were interpreted literally by most
commentators (comp., however, Ibn Ezra and
RaShbaM on Ex. xiii. 9), the Rabbis held that the
general law only was expressed in the Bible, the
application and elaboration of it being entirely mat-
ters of tradition and inference (Sanh. 88b). The

(In the Uritish Musvum.)

earlier tannaim had to resort to fanciful interpreta-
tions of tiie texts in order to find Biblical support
for the custom of inscril)ing the four selections in
the phylacteries (Men. 341): Zeb. 37b; Sanh. 4b;
Rashi and Tos. ad U/c). There are more laws —
ascrilied to oral delivery l)y God to Moses — clus-
tering about the institution of tefillin than about any

Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

other institution of Judaism (Men. 35a: Yer. Meg.
i. 9; Mairaonides, in "Yad." Tefillin, i. 3, mentions
ten; Rodkinssohn, in "Telillah le-Moslieb," p. 20.
ed. Presburg, 1883, mentions eighteen; comp. Weiss,
"Dor," i. 74-75). Thus, even if most Jewish com-
mentators are followed in their literal interpretations
of the Biblical passages mentioned above, rabbinic
interpretation and traditional usage must still be
relied upon for the determination of the nature of
the tefillin and the laws concerning them (see Phy-
L.\CTEUiEs — nisToiiic.\i. and CitiTrc.\L Views).
Pliylactcrics, as universally used at the present

(NniDyD: ^len. 35a) at the ends, through which are
passed leathern straps (niyiV^^ made of the skins of
clean animals (Shab. 28b) and blackened on the out-
side (Men. 35a; comp. "Sefer Hasidim," ed. Wisti-
netski, § 1669). The strap that is passed through
the head-phylactery ends at the back of the head in
a knot representing the letter i ; the one that is
pa.ssed through the hand-phylactery is formed into
a noose near the box and fastened in a knot in the
shape of the letter '(comp. Heilprin, "Seder ha-
Dorot," i. 208, ed. Maskileison, Warsjiw, 1897, where
a wonderful storv in relation to the laws governinsr

Phylacteries a.nd Bag.

(In the United St«tes Natlunal Museum, Washington, D. C.)

time, consist of two leathern boxes — one worn on
the arm and known as "shel yad " (Men. iv. 1) or

'• shel zeroa' " (Mik. x. 3), and the other

Details of worn on the head and known as "slid

Manu- rosh " — made of tlie skins of clean ani-

facture. mals (Men. 42b; Sanh. 48b; "Yad,"

l.i-. ill. 15). The boxes must be square
(Men. 35a): their height may be more or less than
the length or the width ("Yad," I.e. iii. 2); and it
is desirable thai they be black (Shulhan 'Aruk, Orah
Hayyim, 32, 40). The boxes are fastened on tiie
under side with square pieces of thick leather
(Klin^n: Men. 35a) by means of twelve stitches
made with threads prepared from the veins of clean
animals (Shab. 28b), and are provided with loops

the making of these knots is told). The box con-
taining the head-phylactery has on the outside the
letter {»>, both to the right (with three strokes:
5J>) and to the left (with four strokes: {2>; Men. 35a;
comp. Tos., s.t. "Shin"; probablj' as a reminder to
insure the correct insertion of the four Biblical pas-
sages): and this, together with the letters formed by
the knots of the two straps, make up the letters of
the Hebrew word "Shaddai" (nK' = "Almighty,"
one of the names of God; Men. 35b; Kashi, s.v.
" Kesher '"). The measurements of the boxes are not
given ; but it is recommended that they should not
be smaller than the width of two lingers ('Er. 95b;
Tos.,s.r. "Makom"; Men. 35a: Tos., «.?•. "Shin").
The width of the straps should be equal to the

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

length of a grain of oats. The strap that is passed
throiigli the lieud pliyhxctery should he long onoiigli
to encircle the hend and to allow for the knot; and
the two ends, falling in front over either shoulder,
should reach the navel, or somewhat above it. The
strap that is passed through the hand-phylactery
should be long enough to allow for the knot, to en-
circle the whole length of the arm, and then to be
wound three times around the middle linger (" Yad,"
I.e. iii. 12; Orah Hayyim, 27, 8, 11).

Each box contains the four Scriptural passages
Ex. xiii. 1-10, 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21 (conip.
Zohar, ed. Amsterdam, 1789, to Bo, p.
Contents. 43a, b), written with black iidc (Yer.
Meg. 1. 9) in Hebrew scjuare charac-
ters (n^llK'X; Meg. 8b; Soferim xv. 1) on parch-
ment (Shab. 79b; Men. 32a) si)ecially prepared for
the purpose (Orah Hayyim, 32, 8; comp. "Be'er
Heteb" and "Sha'are Teshubah," ad loc.) from
the skin of a clean animal (Shab. 108a). The hand-
phylactery has only one compartment, which con-
tains the four Biblical selections written upon a
single strip of parchment in four parallel columns
and in the order given in the Bible (IMen. 34b). The
head-phylactery has four compartments, formed
from one piece of leather, in each of which one selec-
tion written on a separate piece of parchment is de-
posited perpendicularly. The pieces of parchment
on which the Biblical selections are written are in
either case tied round with narrow strips of parch-
ment and fastened with the thoroughly washed hair
of a clean animal (Shab. 28b, 108a), preferably of
a calf ("Yad," I.e. iii. 8; Orah Hayyim, 32, 44).
There was considerable discussion among the com-
mentators of the Talmud (Men. 34b) as to the order
in which the Biblical selections shoidd be inserted
into the head-phylactery. The chief disputants in
this case were R. Solomon Yizhaki
Arrange- (Raslii) and H. Jacob b. Meir Tam
ment of (Rabbenu Tam), although different
Passages, possible arrangements have been sug-
gested by other writers ("Shimmusha
Rabba" and RABaD). The following diagram
shows the arrangements of the Bible verses as ad-
vocated respectively by Rabbenu Tam and Rashi
(comp. RodUinssohn, "Tefillali le-Mosheh," p. 25):

R. Tam

Raslil .

E.X. xiii. 1-10,

Ex. xiii. 1-10,

Ex. xiii. 11-16,

Deut. xl. 13-;

21,

Deut. vi. 4

-9,

The prevailing custom is to follow the opinion of
Rashi ("Yad," I.e. iii. 5; comp. RABaD and " Kesef
Mishneh" ad loc; Orah Hayyim, 34. 1), although
some are accustomed, in order to be certain of per-
forming their duty properly, to lay two pairs of
tefillin (comp. 'Er. 95b), one prepared in accordance
with the view of Rashi, and the other in accordance
with that of Rabbenu Tam. If, however, one is
uncertain as to the exact position for two pairs of
tetillin at the same time, one should tlrst "lay " the
tefillin prepared in accordance with Rashi's opinion,
and then, removing these during the latter part of

the service, without pronouncing a blessing lay
those prepared in accordance with Rabbenu Tain's
opinion. Only 'the specially pious wear both kinds
(Orah Hayyim, 34, 2, 3).

The i)ar(hment on which the Biblical passages are
written need not be ruled ("Yad," I.e. i. 12), al-
though the custom is to rule it. A pointed instru-
ment that leaves no blot should be used in ruling;
the use of a pencil is forbidden (Orah Hayyim, 32,
6, Is.serles' gloss). The scribe should be very care-
ful in writing the selections. Before
Mode of beginning to write he sliould pro-
Writing, nounce the words, "I am writing this
for the sake of the holiness of tefillin " ;
and before he begins to write any of the names of
God occurring in the texts, he should say, "I am
writing this for the sake of the holiness of the
Name. " Throughout the writing his attention must
not be diverted; "even if the King of Israel should
then greet liim, he is forbidden to reply " ("Yad,"
I.e. i. 15; Orah Hayyim, 32, 19). If he omits even
one letter, the wliole inscription becomes unfit. If
he inserts a superfluous letter at the beginning
or at the end of a word, he may erase it, but if
in the middle of a word, the whole becomes unfit
("Yad," I.e. ii. ; Orah Hayyim, 32, 23, and "Be'er
Heteb," ad loe.). The letters must be distinct and
not touch each other; space must be left between
them, between the words, and between the lines, as
also between the verses (Orah Hayyim, 32, 32, Is-
serles' gloss; comp. "jNIagen Abraham" and "Be'er
Heteb" ad loc.). The letters p ]^nv^ where they
occur in the selections are adorned with some
fanciful ornamentation (Men. 29b; see Tos., s.v.
" Sha'atnez ") ; some scribes adorn other letters also
(Orah ilayyim, 36, 3, and "Be'er Heteb," arf loc.).
In writing the selections it is customary to devote
seven lines to each paragraph in the hand-phylac-
tery, and four lines to each paragrapli in the head-
phylactery (Orah Hayyim, 35).

In putting on the tefillin, the hand-phylactery is
laid first (Men. 36a). Its place is on the inner side
of the left arm {ih. 36b, 37a), just above the elbow
(comp. " Sefer Hasidim," §§ 434, 638, where the exact
place is given as two fist-widths from the shoulder-
blade; similarly the head-phylactery is worn two
fist-widths from the tip of the
nose) ; and it is held in position
by the noose of the strap so that
when the arm is bent the phy-
lactery may rest near the beait
(Men. 37a, based on Deut. xi. 8;
comp. "Sefer Hasidim," §§435,
1742). If one is left-handed, he
lays the hand-phylactery on the same place on his
right hand (Men." 37a; Orah Hayyim, 27b). After
the phylactery is thus fastened on the
How bare arm, the strap is wound seven

Put on. limes round the arm. The head-phy-
lactery is phtced so as to overhang the
middle of the forehead, with the knot of the strap at
the back of the head and overhanging the middle of
the neck, while the two ends of the strap, with the
blackened side outward, hang over the shoulders in
front (Orah Hayyim, 27, 8-11). On laying the hand-
phylactery, before the knot is fastened, the following

Deut. vi. 4-9,

Deut. xi. 13-21.

Phylacteries

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

benediction is pronounced: "Blessed art Thou . . .
who sanctilietli us with His commaudintuts and
hast commanded us to lay tetillin. " Before the head-
phylactery is fastened the blessing is repeated with
the substitution of the phrase "concerning the com-
maudnieut of tefillin " for "to lay telilliu." Some

glorious kingdom for ever and ever," lest the second
benediction be pronounced unnecessarily. If lie who
lays the tefilliu has talked between the laying of the
hand-phylactery and that of the head-phylactery,
he should repeat both blessings at the laying of the
latter (Men. 3Ga ; " Yad," I.e. iv. 4, o ; Oruh Hayyim,

rilVLACTERIES AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT.

A. For the arm. B. As aUJusted un the arm. C. For the head. D. Jew wearing phylacteries.

(From Plcsrt, 1725.)

authorities are of the opinion that the blessing on
laying the head-phylaetcry should be pronounced
only when an inleiruption has occurred through
conversation on the part of the one engaged in per-
forfiiing thecoiiiiiiandment; otherwise the one bless-
ing ijroiiounccd on laying the hand-piiylaetery is
suflicieut. The prevailing custom, however, is to
pronounce two blessings, and, after the second bless-
ing, to say the words, "Blessed be the name of His

25, 5; Isserles' gloss, 9, 10; comp. ib. 206, 6). Then
the strap of the hand-pliylactery is wound three
times around the niiddU; linger so as to form a

{j> and the passages Hos. ii. 21 and

The 22 are recited. The seven twistiiigs

Blessings, of the strap on the arm are then

counted while the seven wordsof Dent,
iv. 4 are recited. A lengthy prayer in which the sig-
niticance of the tetillin is exjilained and which con-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

tains traces of cabalistic influence is recited by some
before putting on tlie tefilliu. After the tetilliu are
laid Ex. xiii. 1-lG is recited. In removing the tetil-
lin the three twistings on the middle finger are
loosened first; then the hcud-phylactery is removed ;
and finally the hunil -phylaclery (Men. 36a). It is
customary to lay and to remove the tefilliu -while
standing; also to kiss them when they are taken
from and returned to the phylactery-bag (Orah
Hayyim, 28. 2, 3).

Originally tefilliu were worn all day, but not
during the night (Men. 86b). Now the prevailing
custom is to wear them during the daily morning
service only (comp. Bcr. 14b). They are not worn
on Sabbaths and holy days ; for these, being in them-
selves "signs," render the tefilliu, which are to serve

is engaged in the study of the Law (K. Jonah to
Alfasi on Ber. il. 5, s.r. "Le-Memra"), and .scribes
of and dealers in tetillin and mezuzot while engaged
in their work if it can not be postponed, are also
free from this obligation (Suk. 26a; Orah Hayyim,
38, 8-10). It is not permitted to enter a cemetery
(Ber. 18a) or any unseemly place {ib. 23a; Shab.
10a), or to eat a regular meal or to sleep (Ber. 23b;
Suk. 26a), while wearing tetillin. The bag usexl for
tefilliu should not be used for any other purpose, un-
less a condition was expressly made that it might
be used for any purpose (Ber. 231); Sanh. 48a).

Maimonides (" Yad," I.e. iv. 25, 20) concludes the
laws of tetillin with the following exhortation (the
references are not in Maimonides) :

"The sanctity of teflllin is very great (comp. Shab. 49a;

^^^^^^^^^^^H

^A^^^l

t^H

^^^^^^^H

Phylactkry for arm.

(From the Cairo Genizah.)

as signs themselves (Ex. xiii. 9, 16), unnecessary
(Men. 36b; 'Er. 96a). In those places where tetillin
are worn on the week-days of the festivals (see
Holy Days), and on New JNIoons, they are re-
moved before the "Musaf " prayer (Orah Hayyim,
25, 13).

The duty of laying tefillin rests upon males
after the age of thirteen years and one day. Women
are exempt from the obligation, as are also slaves
and minors (Ber. 20a). Women who wish to lay
tetillin are precluded from doing so (Orah Hayyim,
38, 3, Isserles' gloss); in ancient times this was not
the case ('Er. 96a, b). A mourner during the first
day of his mourning period (M. K. 15a; Suk. 25b),
a bridegroom on his wedding-day (Suk. I.e.), an
excommunicate, and a leper (^M. K. 15a) are also
exempt. A suflerer from stomach-trouble (Hul.
110a), one who is otherwise in pain and can not
concentrate his mind ("Yad," I.e. iv. 13), one who

Masseket Teflllin, toward the end: Zohar, section " Wa'etha-
nan," p. 269b). As long as the teflllin are on the head and on
the arm of a man, he is modest and God-fearinp and will
not be attracted by hilarity or idle talk, and will have no evil
thoughts, but will devote all his thoughts to truth and right-
eousness (comp. JSIen. 43b ; "SeferHasidim,"§5.54). Therefore,
every man ought to try to have the teflllin upon him the whole
day (Masseket Teflllin. I.e.; comp. SIfre t^) Deut. v. 9); for only
in this way can he fulfll the commandment. It is related that
Kab (Abba Arika), the pupil of our holy teacher (R. Judah ha-
Nasi), was never seen to walk four cubits without a Torah, with-
out fringes on his garments (" zizit"), and without teflllin (Suk.
29a, where R. Johaiian b. Zakkai and R. Eliezer are mentioned ;
comp. Meg. 24a. where R. Zera is mentioned) . Although the Law
enjoins the wearing of teflllin the whole day. it is especially com-
mendable to wear them during prayer. The sages say that one
who reads the Shenia' without teflllin is as if he testifled falsely
against himself (Ber. 14b, 15a). He who does not lay teflllin
transgresses eight commandments (Men. 44a ; comp. R. H. ITa);
for in each of the four Biblical passages there is a commandment
to wear teflllin on the head and on the arm. But he who is ac-
customed to wear teflllin will live long, as it is written, ' When
the Lord is upon them they will live ' " (Isa. xxxviii. Iti, Hebr.;
comp. A. v.; Men. 44a).

Phylacteriea

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

BiBLlOGRAPHT: Miunekft Tt-nUin, published by KIrchheim in
his edition of the seven smaller treatises of the Talmud. Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. 1851 ; Rosh. Hilkot Ttfillin, in Halaknt
Ktiannot, hnd ShimmuKha Rabba, published with Menahot
In mtwt editions of the Talmud: K'll Ii<>, §21. FQrth, 1782;
Hambuiver. li.B.T. ii., s.v. TephiUin ; Hastings. Dirt. Bible ;
Friediander. I7u Jtuw/i IitU\/ion, pp. SU-SW. London, 1900;
Rodkins.in. Ttnilali U-Mofheh, Pivsbui>r, 1SW3 ; Zunz, G.S.
11. 172-176, Berlin. U<76. t tt /-•

E. c. J- H. G.

Historical View : The only instance of the

name " iihyhiciories " in Biblical times occurs in the
New Testament (Matt, xxiii. 5). whence it has passed
into the 1 a n -
guages of Eu-
rope. In rab-
binical literature
it is not found
even as a foreign
word. The Sep-
tuagint renders
"totafot" (A.
y. and E. V.
"frontlets'-;
Ex. xiii. 16 and
Deut. vi. 8) by
aaa/.evrdv ( =
"something im-
movable ") ; nor
do Aquila and
Symmachus use
the word " phy-
lacteries." The
Targumim (Jon-
athan, Onkelos)
and the Peshitta
use "tefillin "
(Ex. xiii. 9, 16;
xxviii. 37; Deut.
vi. 8, xxviii. 10;
Ezek. xxiv. 23;
Cant. viii. 1) or
"totafot" (II
Sam. i. 10; Ezek.
xxiv. 17 et seq.).
The terms "te-
fiUah," "tefillin"
only are found
in Talmudic lit-
erature, al-
though the word
" totafah " was
still current, be-
ing used with
the meaning of "frontlet " (Shab. vi. 1). The con-
clusions in regard to the tefillin wiiich are based
on its current uame "phylacteries,"
therefore, lack historical basis, since
this name was not used in truly Jew-
ish circles.
In regard to their origin, however, the custom of
wearing protecting coverings on the head and hands
must be borne in mind. Saul's way of appearing in
battle, with a crown on his head and wearing l)race-
lets, is connected with this idea. The Proverbs re-
flect popular conceptions, for they originated in
great part with the iieople. or were addressed to
them. Prov. i. 9, iii. 3, vi. 21, and vii. 3 (comp.
Jer. xvi-i. 1, xxxi. 32-33) clearly indicate the custom

Phylactery-Bap.

(Id the j>n«»;aBioD of M.iurlce Herrmann,

Name and
Origin.

of wearing some object, with or without inscription,
around the neck or near the heart ; the actual cus-
tom appears in the figure of speech. In view of
these facts it may be assumed that Ex. xiii. 9, 16,
and Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 must be interpreted not fig-
uratively but literally ; therefore it must be assumed
that the custom of wearing strips inscribed with
Biblical passages is commanded in the Torah.
" Bind them as signs on thy hand, and they shall be
as totafot between thy eyes " assumes that totafot

were at the time
known and in
use, but that
thenceforth the
words of the
Torah were to
serve as totafot
(on signs see also
I Kings XX. 41 ;
Ezek. ix. 4, 6;
Psalms of Solo-
mon, XV. 9; see

BUE.\ST - PI..A.TE

OF THE High
Phiest; Caix).
It is not known
whether this
command was
carried out in
the earliest time,
and if so , in
what manner.
But from the
relatively large
number of regu-
lations referring
to the phylac-
teries— some
of them con-
nected with the
names of the
first tannaim —
and also from
the fact that
among the fifty-
five "Sinaitic
c o m m a n d s "
("halakah le-
>I o .5 h e h m i -
Sinai '').eiglit re-
fer to the tefillin
alone and seven to the tefillin and the Torah to-
gether, it follows that they were used as early as
the time of the Soferim — the fourth,
Epoch, of or at least the thiid, century u.c.
In- The earliest ex illicit reference to them

troduction. that has been preserved — namely, in
the Letter of Aristeas (verse 159; see
Kaulzsch, " Apokryphen," ii. 18) — speaks of them
as an old institution.

Josephus ("Ant." iv. 8, § 13) also regards them
as an ancient institution, and he curiously enough
places the tefillin of the head first, as the Talmud
generally does (comp. Justin, "Dial, cum Tryph."
ed. Otto, ii. 154). The tefillin are mentioned in con-
nection with Simeon b. Shetah, brother-in-law of

New York.)

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Phylacteries

Alexander Janna'us (Ycr. IIuij. 77(1): uiul Sliammai
produces tlie tefillin of his motlier's father (Mek., Bo,
§ 17 [ed. Friedmann, 21b] ; the parallel passage Yer.
'Er. 20a reads " Ilillcl "). The date here given is the
seventh decade of the first century ii.c. Schorr (in
"Ile-Haluz," vol. iv.) assumes that they were intro-
duced in the Maccabean period, and A. Krochinal re-
gards the reference to Elisha's "wings" (Shab. '14a;
Yer. Ber. 4c) as indicating that lie was one of the first
of the high priests to wear the tefiUah (" 'lyyun Te-
lillah,"' pp. 27 et seq.). Johanan 1). Zakkai never
went four ells without tefillin ; neither did his pupil
Eliezer (Yer. Ber. 4c). Gamaliel II. (r. 100 O.K.)
gives directions as to what shall be done with te-
fillin found on the Sabbath, making a distinction
between old and new tefillin ('Er. x. 1), a fact that
clearly indicates the extent to which they were used.
Even the slaves of this patriarch wore tefillin (Yer.
'Er. 26a). Judali b. Bathyra refers, about 150 c.e.,
to llie tefillin which he inherited from his grand-
father; these were inscribed to the dead awakened
by Ezekiel (xxxvii. ; Sanli. 92b). In the following
centuries they were used to an increasing extent, as
appears from the numerous sentences and ndes re-
ferring to them by the authorities of the Babylonian
and Palestinian Talmuds.

Tefillin resembled amulets in their earliest form,

strips of parchment in a leather case, which is called

either " bag " or " little house." Tefil-

Earliest lin and " keme'ot " are, in fact, often
Form. mentioned side by side (SJiab. vi. 2:
]Mik. vi. 4; Kelim xxiii. 9; et al.), and
■were liable to be mistaken one for the other ('Er. x.
1 et al.). iis in the case of the Torah roll, the only
permissible material was parchment, while the "me-
zuzah " was made of a different kind of parchment
(Shab. viii. 'Set al.)\ for this reason a discarded
tefillah could be made into a mezuzah, but not vice
versa (Men. 32a). It was made square, not round
(Meg. iv. 8). The head-tefillah consisted of four
strips in four compartments, while the hand-tefillah
consisted of one strip. The former could be made
out of the latter, but not vice versa ; and they were
independent of each other (Kelim xviii. 8; Men. iii.
7, iv. 1, 34b; Yer. Hag. 77d et passim). The here-
tics had a way of covering the tefillah with gold,
■wearing it on the sleeve and on the forehead (Meg.
iv. 8). The straps (Yad. iii. 8) were made of the
same material as the boxes, but could be of any color
except blood-red ; they were sometimes blue or of a
reddish purple (Men. 35a).

The most important tefillah was the head-tefillah
(Kelim xviii. 8 et passim). It was put on according
to rule (Sheb. iii. 8, 11; Men. 36a) and was worn
fron\ morning until night, with the exception of
Sabbath and feast-days (Targ. to Ezek. xiii. 10;
Men. 36b); some wore tefillin also in theevening, as
did Akiba ('Er. 96a), Abbahu (Yer. 'Er. 26a), Rabba
and Iluna (Men. 36b) during the evening prayer,
and Ashi (beginning of 5th cent.).

The head-tefillah was the principal one, because
the tefillah worn on the arm was not visible (Men.
37b). A Jew was recognized by the former, which
he wore proudly, because, according to Deut. x xviii.
10, all peoples knew thereby that the Name of the
Eternal had been pronounced over him (Men. 35b ;

Targ. Esth. viii. 15; comp. Cant. viii. 1; Ezek.
xxiv. 17, 23). Jerome says (on Galatians iv. 22)
that the Jews feared to appear in the cities, because
they attracted attention; jirobably they Avere recog-
nized by the tefillah. It was not worn in times of
danger ('Er. x. 1). The law in regard to tefillin,
therefore, which did not demand obedience at the
jK'ril of life, had not taken such a deep hold upon
the people as other laws (Shab. 130a; R. H. 17a;
Yer. Ber. 4c; Pesik. R., ed. Friedmann, p. 111b).
However, it must not be inferred from this state-
ment that the tefillah was not w^orn to any great
extent (Rodkinson, "Ursprung und Entwickelung
des Phylacterien-Ritus bei den Juden," p. 5), but
merely that it was not generally worn.

Tlie tefillin have been connected with magic, as
the name " phylacteries " primarily indicates. Fried-
lander takes the tefillah to be a substitute for the

"signum serpentinum " of the antino-

Tefillin mistic Gnostics. The tefillin, how-

and Magic, ever, originated at a time prior to that

of the Gnostics, as has been shown
above. Although the institution of the tefillin is re-
lated in form to the custom of wearing amulets, in-
dicating the ancient views regarding that means of
protection, yet there is not a single passage in the
old literature to show that they were identified with
magic. Their power of protecting is similar to that
of the Torah and the Commandments, of which it is
said, "They protect Israel " (Blau, " AltjLidisches
Zauberwesen," p. 152). One of the earliest tannaim,
Eliezer b. Ilyrcanus (b. 70 C.E.), who laid great
stress upon the tefillin, actively advocating their
general use, derives the duty of wearing them from
Josh. i. 8, "Thou shalt meditate therein day and
night" (treatise Tefillim, near end). In conform-
ity with this view they contain chiefl}' the Shema',
the daily reading of which takes the place of the
daily study of the Bible.

The tannaitic Midrash, indeed, takes pains to prove
that the Decalogue has no place in the tefillin (Sifre,
Deut. 34, 35 ; Ber. lib). Jerome, therefore (to Matt.
XXV. 3), is not correct in saying that the tefillin con-
tain also the Ten Commandments; although this
may have been the case among the "minim," or
heretics. The newlj^ discovered Hebrew papyrus
with Shema' and Decalogue belonged, perhaps, to
the tefillah of a " min." The Samaritans did not ob-
serve the command to wear the tefillah (Men. 42b,
above). They are ranked with the pagans, there-
fore, as persons not fit to write them (ib.).

Although the tefillin were worn throughout the
day, not only in Palestine but also in Babylon, the

custom of wearing them did not be-

In the come entirely popular; and during

Diaspora the Diaspora they were worn no-

and Post- where during the day. But it ap-

Talmudic pears from the Letter of Aristeas and

Times. from Josephus that the tefillin were

known to the Jews of the Diaspora.
At this time it may have become customary to wear
them only during prayer, traces of this custom
being found in Babylon (Men. 36b). In France
in the thirteenth century they were not generally
worn even during prayer (Rodkinson, I.e., quoting
Tos. Shab. 49a; comp. "Semag," Commandment

Phylacteries
Picart

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

No. 3; Gratz, "Gesch." vii. 71). The diflference of
opinion between Isaac ( Uaslii ; d. 1105) and his grand-
son Jacob Tarn (d. 1171) in regard to thearningemeut
of the four sections indicates that no tixed custom iu
wearing them had arisen. Rashi and Tam's tefillin
are referred to ; scruindously pious persons put ou
thetelillinofH. Tarn after prayer (Men. 34b; Shulhan
Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 34). There were differences
of opinion between the Spanish and the German Jews
iu regard to the knot iu the strap (see iUustratious in
Surenhusius, cited below). At the time of the Re-
form movement, in the tirst half of tiie nineteenth
century, especially in Germany, the custom of wear-
ing the tetillin. like other ritual and ceremonial ordi-
nances, was attacked, calling forth the protests of
Zunz.

BiBLiOGR.\PHY: The chief works are: Klein, Die Totaphnt
nach Dihd utul Traditimi la Jahrfi. fllr Pn)t€i>tantische
r/.<< •/'.(/!«, 1S81, pp. ti«k>-689, and M. L. Rodkloson, Ur-
ftpniim ttnil EtitwickehttiiHies I'hflJncterieu-RiUts hei deii
Jwhu, Prrtburp, 18K{ (reviewed in /\'. E. J. vi. 2S8); idem,
HiMDrtinf A inulet.i, ClinrinMaiKt Tali^smau.i, New York, 189:}.
Fordescrlption and illustrations see Surenhusius. 3/i.s7i/ifl/i. vol.
l...\msterdain. 16W (before p. Ui, and Bodensrhatz, Kirchlkhe
Vfrfa-^tuugder HeutiiiiiiJudcii, iv. 14-19; see also Winer.
B. R. 3d ed.. 1. .%, ii. 2«(»: Hamburger. R. B. T. ii. KJtio. 1203-
laW; Hautinps. DiVf. iJiWf, iii. 86&-874 ; Z. Frankel, Lehcr
deii Kiiirtuiis dtr PaUMiiti.scheti Exegcse axif die AJexan-
driiiisrhf Ifcrmoirutik. pp. 90 et «CQ., Leipsie, 1851; M.
Friedlunder, Dcr AtitichriM in den Vnrchristlichen JU-
dwc/if )i ijiuUen. pp. 1.'>.>-Iti">. Goitingen, 19t)l ; M. Griinbaum,
Gcsammeltc AufMltze. pp. 208 et »io., Berlin, 1901 ; Herrfeld,
GcKch. des I'oJAcs 7j<rne/, lil. 223-2ii. Nordhausen, 18.57; A.
Kn>chmal. "lujnin TefiUah, pp. 24 ct scq., Lemberg, 1883; S.
Munk. PaleMine, p. 2«8; O. H. Schorr, in He-Holuz, vol. iv.;
Sehurer, Ge.ich. M ed., ii. 484 et sei/.; Zunz, d. S. ii. 172-176
{TefiUin. €i)ie Dctrachtunij). See earlier Christian bibllog-
raphv in Sehurer, Gcscli.
J. L. B.

Critical View : The etymology of the term —

from the Gi'isi^k vi'/ auri/piov, itself derived from (pv/.da-
a£tv{= "to guard against evil," "to protect") — indi-
cates the meaning, in the Hellenistic period, to have
been "amulet" (an object worn as a protection
against evil). The language of the four passages iu
which a reference occurs to "sign upon the hand"
and " frontlets," or " memorials," " between the eyes "
(E.\. xiii. 9, 16; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18, Hebr.) proves
that among the Hebrews the practise of wearing ob-
jects of this kind around the forehead and on the hand
must liave prevailed. Later rabbinical exegesis re-
garded the figurative reference and simile in Deut.
vi. 8 and xi. 18 as a command to be carried out liter-
ally. Comparison with Ex. xiii. 9, 16, where the same
terminology is employed, sutttces to demonstrate that
in Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 the writer expressed himself fig-
uratively, with allusion, of course, to a popular and
wide-spread custom. It is plain that a sound con-
struction of the Deuteronomic passages must reject
the interpietation which restricts the
Figurative bearing (jf the phrase " ha-debarim ha-
Ex- elleh " (Deut. vi. 6) to the immediately

pressions. i)re(eding Shema", or of "debarai el-
leh " of Deut. xi. 18 to the preceding
verse. In the phraseology of Deuteronomy, "these
my words " embrace the whole book, the Torah, and
it would have been as impossible to write the whole
book on one's hand as it was to carry the sacrifice of
the first-born (Ex. xiii.) as "a sign on one's hand."
Prov. i. 9, iii. 3. vi. 21, vii. 3, and Jer. xvii. 1, xxxi.
33 illustrate in what sense the expressions "write"
or "bind " in this connection are to be taken. As a
matter of fact, phylacteries as described by the Rabbis

did not come into use before the last pre-Christian
centur}'; the Samaritans knew nothing of them.

That amulets and signs were iu use among the an-
cient Hebrews is evident from Gen. iv. 15 (Cain's,
sign), I Kings xx. 41, and Ezek. ix. 4-6 (comp. Rev.
vii. 3; xiii. 16; xiv. 1, 9; Psalms of Solomon, xv. 10).
Originally, the "sign " was tattooed ou the skin, the
forehead ("between the eyes") and the hand natu-
rally being chosen for the display. Later, some
visible object worn between the eyes or bound on
the hand was substituted for the writing on the skin.

But the original practise is still discernible in the
use of the word "yad " (hand) to connote a " token "
(Ex. xvii. 16) with an inscription, the "zikkaron,"
which latter is the technical term, apjiearing in Ex.
xiii. and Deut. xi. 18. This fact explains also the
original value of the word "yad "in tJie combina-
tion "yad wa-shem " (hand and name; Isa. Ivi. 5).
The jiassage from Isaiah just quoted plainly shows
that such a yad wa-shem was effective against that
the Semite dreaded most — oblivion after death.
The words "ot," "shem," and "zeker" are often
used interchangeably (e.g., Isa. Iv. 13 and Ex. iii.
15), and it is probable that originally they desig-
nated visible tokens cut into the flesh for purposes-
of marking one's connection with a deity or a clan
(see Circumcision; Covexaxt; Totemis.m). The
common meanings of these words, "sign," "name,"
and " memorial," are secondary. The phrase " to lift
up the name" in the Decalogue indicates fully that
"shem " must have been originally a totemisticsign,
affixed to a person or an object.

The etymology of "totafot," wliicli, probably,
should be considered singular and be pointed "tote-
fet," is not plain. The consensus of modern opin-
ion is that it designates a round jewel, like the
"netifot" (Judges viii. 26; Isa. iii. 19), therefore a
charm, though others believe its original meaning to
have been " a mark " tattooed into the flesh (Siegfried-
Stade, "Lexicon"). It is to the habit of wearing
amulets or making incisions that the law of Deute-
ronomy refers, as does Ex. xiii., advising that only
God's Torah, as it were, shall constitute the pro-
tecting "charm" of the faithful.

Bibliography : 7>r(.s A'ai'»U(:i(?i((i,inStade"sZfif,'*c;iri/M894;
(i. Klein, Totajilidt >i(H)t liihcl u)id Traditinn, in Jdlirlmch
fl'tr l'rota<ta)iti)ichc Thcologic, 1881 ; Hastings, Diet. Bible.

E. G. H.
PHYSICIAN. See Medicine.
PIATELLI. See Anaw.

PICART, BERNARD : French designer and
engraver; Ijorn at Paris June 11, 1678; died at Am-
sterdam ^lay 8, 1733. He was descended from a
Protestant family and received his earliest instruc-
tion from his father, Ktienne Picart, and from Le
Brun and Jouvenet. At an early age Picart showed
a marked facility in the imitation of the great mas-
ters. In 1710 he settled at Amsterdam, where he
supplied plates and engravings to printers and book-
sellers. Picart designed and executed avast num-
ber of plates, about 1,300 of which are still extant.
The.se represent a variety of subjects, a number of
them dejiicting Biblical topics. That part of his
work which is of Jewish interest is contained in the
"Ceremonies des Juifs," the first volume of the
"Ceremonies et Coutumes Reliirieuses de Tons les

/9./\.:r'r y.:' /.•■•<

TiTI.K-I'AGK H'.OM TIIK "TiKKlX SOFKRIM," DESIGNED BY BERNARD PiCART.

(From ihe Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Semlosry of America, New York.)

Picciotto
Pick

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Peuplcs du Monde" (11 vols., Amsterdam, 1723-
1743). These plates, all of wliicli are faithfully and
carefully prepared, are among the earliest engra-
vings on Jewish ecclesiastical and ceremonial sub-
jects. Tlie following is a list of iheni, given in the
order in which they appear in the original edition:
(1) Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue at Amster-
dam ; (2) Jew with Phylacteries and Praying-Scarf;
(3) Arba' Kanfot, Sabbath Lamp, Mazzot, Lulab,
Etrog, Mezuzah, and Shofar; (4) Benediction of the
Priests in a Portuguese Synagogue at Tiie Hague ;
(5) Elevation of the Law; (6) Sounding the Shofar
on New-Year's Day ; (7) The Day of Atonement (in
the Synagogue); (8) Search for Leaven; ('J) Pass-
over Meal; (10) Feast of Tabernacles (in the Syna-
gogue); (1') Feast of Tabernacles (at Home); (12)
Rejoicing of the Law (in the Synagogue); (18) Es-
corting Home the Bridegroom of the Law; (14) Im-
plements of Circumcision; Scroll of the Law, with
Mantle, Crowns, etc. ; (15) Circumcision; (Ki) Re-
demption of tlie First-Born ; (17) Marriage Among the
Portuguese Jews ; (18) Marriage Among the German
Jews; (19) Circuit Round the Coffin ; (20) Interment.
An English translation of the work cited was
printed by William Jackson (London, 1733). It
contains, in addition to Picart's drawings, which in
this translation are engraved by Du Bosc, several
good engravings of similar Jewish subjects by F.
Morellon la Cave.

Bibliooraphy: Brj/nnN Dictionary nf Painters and En-
(iraverK, iv. 112. London, 1904; Jacobs and Wolf, liibl. Aii-
l/lo-Jud. p. 76, London. 1888; Thomas, Dk^ of BUHjrapJqi
and Muthiiloou^ Philadelphia, 19()1.
J. I. G. D.

PICCIOTTO, HAIM MOSES: Communal
worker; borual Aleppo 1806; died at London, Eng-
land, Oct. 19, 1879. He was a member of an ancient
Eastern family; his immediate ancestors were en-
gaged in the Russian consular service. He went to
England about 1843, and soon after his arrival there
became active in communal affairs. He advocated
the founding of Jews' College, and was a member
of its council until his death. He was one of the
founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Relig-
ious Knowledge, and wrote many of its tracts. A
good Hebrew scholar, he wrote several odes for reci-
tation on public and festive occasions.

Picciotto was for a considerable period a member
of the Board of Deputies, and was conspicuous in
the deliberations of that body for his indefatigable
Zealand his experience in Eastern affairs. He acted
as commissioner for the board at the time of the war
between ^Morocco and Spain in l8.')9-60. He visited
Gibraltar and Morocco to distribute relief and wrote
a report, as a result of which the Jewish schools at
Tetuiin, Tangier, and Mogador were founded.

His son James Picciotto (born in 1830; died in
London Nov. 13, 1897) was for man}' j^ears secretary
to the council of administration of the Morocco Re-
lief Fund. He retired in 189G, failing health com-
pelling liis resignation. He is known as the author
of "Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History," London,
1877, a reprint of articles which originally appeared
in the "Jewish Chronicle."

BiBi.mfjRAPiiv: Jnr. H'orW, Oct. 24. 1879; Jew. Chrnn. Oct.
;J4, 1879, and Nov. 19, 1897.

J. G. L.

PICHLEB, ADOLF: Austrian painter; born

ill 1834 at Czilfer, in tlie county of Presburg, Hun-
gary. At the age of thirteen he went to Budapest,
where he supported himself by tutoring while pre-
paring himself to teach. After receiving his teach-
er's diploma he entered the Academy of Fine Arts,
where lie soon won the first prize for a study of a
head. Before long he was one of the most popular
drawing-teachers in Budapest. He then went to
Munich to study under Wilhelm von Kaulbach and
Volz. One of his works dating from that time is
the "Jew at Prayer." His best-known picture is
his first work, "Moses, on His Descent from Sinai,
Finds the People Worshiping the Golden Calf. " His
other works include: "The Death of Jacob," "The
]Maiden of Judah," "Spinoza as Glass-Polisher," "Ju-
dah ha-Levi," and many historical paintings and
portraits.

s. R. P.

PICHON (PICHO), JOSEPH: " Almo.xarife "
and "conlador mayor" {i.e., tax-collector-in-chief)
of the city and the archbishopric of Seville; ap-
pointed in 1369 by Henry II. of Castile, who es-
teemed him highly on account of his honesty and clev-
erness. But on charges brought by some rich core-
ligionists who also had been admitted at court,
Pichon was imprisoned by command of the king and
.sentenced to pay 40,000 doubloons. On paying this,
large sum within twenty days he was released and
restored to office; in turn, he brought a serious ac-
cusation against his enemies, either in revenge or in
self- justification.

Henry had died in the meantime, and his .son,
John I., was his successor. Many rich and influen-
tial Jews had gathered from different parts of the
country for the auction of the royal taxes at Burgos,
Avhere the coronation of John took place. These Jews
plotted against the life of Pichon, who was very
popular among the Christians and who had received
marked attentions from the courtiers. It is not
known whether he is in any degree to be blamed for
the extraordinary tax of 20,000 doubloons which
Henry had imposed upon the Jews of Toledo; but,
however this may have been, some prominent Jews,
representing various communities, went to the king-
on the day of the coronation, and, explaining to him
that there was among them a "malsin," i.e., an in-
former and traitor who deserved death according to
the laws of their religion, requested him to em-
power the royal ofliccrs to execute the offender. It
is said that some minions of the king, bribed by the
Jews, induced John to give the order. The dele-
gation then took this order, together with a letter
from several Jews who were the leaders of the com-
munity, to Fernan Martin, the king's executioner.
The latter did not hesitate to fulfil the royal com-
mand. At an early hour on Aug. 21, 1379, he went
with Don Zuleina (Solomon) and Don Zag (Isaac) to
the residence of Pic'lioii, who was still sleeping.
Pichon was awakened on the pretext that some of
his mules were to be seized ; and as soon as he ap-
]ieare(l at the door Fernan laid hold of him and, with-
out saying a word, beheaded him.

The execution of Pichon, whose name had been
concealed from the king, created an uni)leasant sen-
.sation. The monarch was exceedingly angry that

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Picciotto
Pick

he had been inveigled into signing tlie death-war-
rant of a respected and popuhir man who liad fiiitli-
fully served his father for many years. He liad Zu-
lenia, Zag, and tlie chief rabbi of Burgos, who was
in tlie i)l()t, beheaded; and Martin was to have
shared tlie same fate, but was spared at the interces-
sion of some knights. He, liowever, paid for his
hastiness in tlie affair by tlie loss of his right hand.
As a consequence of Pichon's execution, the Cortes
deprived the rabbis and the Jewish courts of the
country of the right to decide criminal cases. The
affair had the most disastrous consequences for the
Jews of Spain, stimulating the hatred of the popu-
lation against them, and contributing to the great
massjicre of the year 1391.

BiBMOGRAPHY : Ayala, Cronica dc D. Junii I. li. 126 et scq.\
ZiinlKa, Analeii dc Sevilla, il. 136, 211 et sea.; Hlos. HM. 11.
3;!;! ct se(/.; Griitz, Gesch. vlll. 45 et scq.; R. E. J. xxxviil. 258
et aecj.
6. M. K.

PICHON (PITCHON), JOSEPH : Kabbinical
author; liveil in Turkey at the end of the seven-
teenth century. He was the author of '• Minhage
ha-Bedikah be-'Ir Saloniki," a work relating to the
method which was follow-ed of making meat kasher
in the slaughter-house at Salon ica.

BiBi.iOGRAPiiv : .Azulai. Shem ha-OeAnlim.s.v.: Franco, Hi's-
toire dcs Israelites de VEmpirc Ottoman, p. 125, Paris, 1897.
B. M. Fr.

PICK, AARON: Biblical scholar; born at
Prague, where he was converted to Christianity and
lectured on Hebrew at the university ; lived in Eng-
land during the first half of the nineteenth century.
He was the author of translations and commentaries
of various books of the Bible, his works comprising:
a literal translation from the Hebrew of the twelve
Minor Prophets (1833); of Obadiah (1884); and of
the seventh chapter of Amos with commentary. In
1837 he produced a treatise on the Hebrew accents;
and in 1845 he published "The Bible Student's Con-
cordance." He was, besides, the author of a work
entitled "The Gathering of Israel, or the Patriarchal
Blessing as Contained in the Forty-ninth Chapter of
Genesis: Being the Revelation of God Concerning
the Twelve Tribes of Israel, and Their Ultimate
Restoration."

s. I. Co.

PICK, ALOIS : Austrian physician, medical au-
thor, and dramatist; born at Karolinenthal, near
Prague, Bohemia, Oct. lo, 1859. lie studied medi-
cine at the universities of Prague and Vienna (M.D.,
Prague, 1883). The same year he joined the hospi-
tal corps of the Austrian army ; and at present (1905)
he holds the position of regimental surgeon (" Regi-
mentsarzt,"). He is also chief physician at the first
Army Hospital, Vienna. In 1890 he became privat-
docent and in 1904 assistant professor at the Uni-
versity of Vienna.

Pick has contributed many essays to the medical
journals, among which may be mentioned: "Zur
Lehre von den Atembewegungen der Emphyse-
matiker,"in "Prager Medizinische Wochciischrift."
1883, No. 17; "Beitrage zur Pathologic und Thera-
pie der Herzneurosen," ih. 1884, No. 44: "Der Re-
spiratorische Gaswechsel Gesunder und Erkranktcn
Luniren," in "Zeitschrift fiir Klinische Medizin,"

Berlin, xvi. ; " Ueber das Bewegliche Herz," in
"Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift," 1889; "Zur
Frage der Ilepatcjgeuen Dyspepsie," ib. 1903. He is
also the author of " Vorlesungen tlber Magen- und
Darmkraiiklieiten," Vienna, 1895. Aside from these
medical works, Pick is the author of two small
farces, " Briefsteller f l\r Liebende " and " Lonl Beef-
steak."

Bini.iofiKAPiiv : Elsenl)er(r, DaA Gewtige Wicn, I. 409, il. 372-
:i7:3, Vienna, 189:3; I'aKel, Bio(j. Lex.
R. F. T. H.

PICK, ARNOLD : Austrian psychiatrist ; born
at Gross-Meseritsch, Moravia, July 20, 1851; edu-
cated at Berlin and Vienna (M.D. 1875). He became
assistant physician at the lunatic asylum at Wehnen,
Oldenburg (1875), and at the state asylum at Prague
(1877); privat-docent at Prague University (1878);
and was appointed in 1880 chief physician at the
asylum in Dobrzan, which position he held till 1886,
when he was elected professor of psychiatry at
Prague.

Among his many works may be mentioned : " Bei-
triige zur Pathologic und zur Pathologischen Ana-
tomic dcs Centralnervens3'stems " (with Kahler),
Leipsic, 1880; and "Beitrage zur Pathologic und
Pathologischen Anatomic des Centralnervensystems
mit einem Excurse zur Normalen Anatomic Dessel-
ben," Berlin, 1898.

Bibliography: Papel, Bing. Lex.

s. F. T. II.

PICK, BEHRENDT: German numismatist and
archeologist ; born Dec. 21, 1861, at Posen. After
passing through the Friedrich-Wilhclms Gymna-
sium of his native city, he went in 1880 to the Uni-
versity of Berlin (Ph.D. 1884), -where he studied
classical philology. On the advice of Theodor
Mommsen, of whose favorite pupils be was one, he
took upas his specialty epigraphy and numismatics.
After a short term of service as librarian at the Royal
Library, Berlin, Pick in 1889 became privat-docent
in archeology at the University of Zurich, and in
1891 was appointed assistant professor there. In
1893 he accepted a position at the ducal library and
in connection with the ducal coin-collection of Gotha,
being made director of the latter in 1899. He was,
besides, appointed in 1896 lecturer on numismatics
at the University of Jena, which position he still
(1905) holds.

Pick's chief work is volume i. ("Dacia und Moe-
sia") of "Die Antiken ]\riinzen Nordgriechenlands"
(Berlin, 1898), a publication issued by the Berlin
Academy of Sciences. S.

PICK, ISAIAH. See Berlin, Is.uati b. Loeb.

PICK, PHILIPP JOSEPH: Austrian deima-
tologist; born at Neustadt, Bohemia, Oct. 14, 1834.
He studied natural sciences and medicine at Vienna
(M.D. 1860) and acted as assistant in several uni-
versity hosjiitals. In 1868 he removed to Prague
and became privat-docent in the German university
there. In 1873 he was appointed assistant professor,
and in 1896 professor, of dermatology in the same
universit}'.

In 1869 Pick founded in conjunction with Hein-
rich Auspitz the "Archivflir Dermatologie." etc.,
of which, since the death of his colleague in 1886,

Pico de ISirandola
Pierleoni

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

he has been sole editor. Muuy essays of his have
appeared in this journal and in the medical papeis
of Vienna and Prague. In 1889 he helped to found
the Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaf t, of which
he was the first president.

At the celebration, in 1898, of the twenty-fifth an-
niversary of his appointment as assistant professor
his pupils ami colleagues prepared a jubilee volume,
edited by Xeis.ser.

BiBLiOGR.vPUY : Papel, Biog. Lex.

s. F. T. II.

PICO DE MIRANDOLA, COUNT GIO-
VANNI FREDERIC© (Prince of Concordia):
Italian itliilusopher, theologian, and cabalist; born
Feb. '24. 1463. at Mirandola; died at Florence Nov.
17, 1494. Gifted with high intellectual powers, he
commeuced tiie study of theology at an early age,
graduated from the University of Bologna, and at
the age of twenty-three published 900 theses against
the views of the philosophers and theologians of his
time (•• Couclusiones Philosophica; Cabalisticse et
Theologicjc," Rome, 1486). These theses included
one which postulated that tiie Cabala best proves
the divinity of Jesus. Pico received his cabalistic
training from Johanan Aleman, from whom he also
obtained three cabalistic works wiiirh he translated
into Latin : the commentary of ]Menahem Recanati
on the Pentateuch, the "Hokmat ha-Nefesh"(=
"Scientia Animtc ") of Eleazar of "Worms (printed at
Lemberg. 1875), and the "Sefer ha-Ma'alot" of
Shem-Tob Falaquera. He tried to harmonize the
philo-sopiiy of Piato and Aristotle with the (Jabala
ami Neo-Platouism, but his excessive devotion to
the Cabala resulted in an ascetic and mystical
tendency, which brought him into conflict with
the Church. He was accu.sed of heresy, but was
acquitted, and retired to Florence, where he spent
the rest of his life with a friend.

Pico was one of tlie first to collect Hebrew manu-
scripts. Of his books, which were widely read, two
may liere be mentioned: (1) "Cabalistarum Sclec-
tiones," Venice, 1569: (2) "Opera," Bologna, 1496;
Venice, 1498; Basel, 1557.

Bibmography: DrnyflorlT, Dnx f^uxtem rlfx J. Picn, Marlnirg,
1858: Di (ilovanni. Pico deUn Mirnndola, FUosofo PUitu-
71ICO. Florence, 18.S2: itlein, Picn Xella Storia del JJoiaxci-
ynfutn, etc.. Palermo, 18!t4; (iriitz, Of.sc/i.viii. 245-247 ; Geda-
Ifah ibn Yahya, ShtiMielet ha-Kahbalah, p. 50a, Amsterdam,
1697 : Zunz, Z. O. pp. 8, 522.

I' S. O.

PICTORIAL ART : There are no ancient re-
mains showing in what way, if any, the Jews of
Bible times made use of painting for decorative or
other purposes. For the references in the Bible
see Painting. During the Middle Ages painting
was a craft which was monopolized Ijv the gilds,
and Jews were thereby prevented from sliowingany
proficiency in the art. The only direction in which
the latter eviflenced any skill was in the illumina-
tion of manuscripts (see Manusckii'Ts).

In modern times painting Avas at first mainly
directed to sacerdotal, decorative purposes, but
Jews were i)recluded from thus employing it, even
in their own synagogues, by the rabbinical inter-
pretation of the second commandment. It is not,
therefore, surprising that it is only with enianri-
pation that any JewLsh names are found in the an-

nals of painting. During the last 150 years a cer-
tain number of Jews have displayed considerable
skill as artists, chief among them being Joseph Is-
raels in Holland. A few Jewish painters, prominent
among whom are S. J. Solomon in England and E.
yi. Lilien in Germany, have in recent years devoted
their talent to specifically Jewish subjects. The
following is a partial list of Jewish painters who
have distinguished themselves in modern times:

America: Max Rosenthal (b. 1833), historical
portraits; ]\Ia.x Weyl (b. 1837), landscapes; Henry
Mosler (b. 1841), genre and portraits; Toby Edward
Rosenthal (b. 1848), genre; Herman Naphtali Hyne-
man (b. 1849), genre; Katherine M. Cohen (b. 1859).
portraits; George da Maduro Peixotto (b. 1859),
portraits and mural decorations; Albert Rosenthal
(b. 1863), portrait-etching; Albert Edward Sterner
(b. 1863), genre and water-colors; Louis Loeb (b.
1866), landscapes and portraits; Augustus Koopman
(b. 1869), genre and portraits; Leo ]\[ielziner (b.
1869), portraits; Louis Kn)ul)erg(b. 1872), portraits;
Edmoud Weill (b. 1872), genre; J. Campbell Phillips
(b. 1873), negro life, and portraits; J. Mortimer
Lichtenauer (b. 1876), mural decorations.

Austria-Hungary : Anton Rafael ]\Iengs (1728-
1779), historical, genre, and portraits; Friedrich
Friedlan(ler(b. 1825), military subjects and portraits;
Adolf Pichler (b. 1834), historical : Leopold Horo-
witz (b. 1837), portraits and subjects from Jewish
life; Lajos Bruck (b. 1846), subjects from Him-
gariau folk-life and portraits; Karl Karger (b.
1848), genre; Joseph Kovcs (b. 1853), portraits and
genre; Isidor Kaufmann (b. 1853), subjects front
Jewish life and genre; Gustav Mannheiiner (b.
1854), landscapes; Camilla Friedliinder (b. 1856;
daughter of Friedrich Friedliinder), still life; Ernst
Berger (b. 1857), Biblical subjects; Gyula Basch (1).
1859), genre and portraits; Adolf Hirschl (b. 1860),
historical; Alexander Nyari (b. 1861); Max Bruck
(b. 1863), genre; Adolf Fenyes (b. 1867), genre;
Philip Luszlo (1). 1869), portraits; Karl Reinhard
(b. 1872), genre; Arpad Basch (b. 1873), water-colors;
Leopold Pollak (1806-80), gein-e and portraits.

Denmark: Israael Israel INIengs (1690-1765),
miniature and enamel; Karl Ileinrich Bloch (b.
1834), scenic and genre: Ernst Meyer (1797-1861),
genre; David ^Monies (1812-94), historical, genre,
and portraits; Geskel Saloman (1821-1902), genre.

England : B. S. Marks (I). 1827), portraits; Felix
3roscheles (b. 1833); Carl Schloesser (b. 1836);
Simeon Solomon (c. 1850), Preraffaelite; Solomon
J. Solomon, A.R.A. (b. 1860), geiu-e and portraits;
Alfred Praga (b. 1860), genre and miniature; Abra-
ham Solomon (1824-63); Isaac Snowman (b. 1874);
Ellen Gertrude Coiien (1). 1876), portraits and genre;
Solomon Alexander Hart, R.A. (1806-81), scenic,
genre, and portraits; Lionel Cowen (1846-95).

France: Felix Dias (1794-1817); Emile Levy
(b. 1826), subjects from Jewish religious history;
Jacob Emile Edouard Brandon (b. 1831), genre;
Constant Mayer (b. 1832), genre and jiortraits; Jules
Worms (b. 1832), liumoristic genre; Zachaiie Astruc
(b. 1839), genre and panels in Avater-color; Henri
Leopold Levy (b. 1840), Jiistorieal and genre: Al-
plionse Levy (b. 1843), Jewish life; Leo Herrmann
(b. 1853), genre; Ferdinand Heilbuth (1826-79),

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pico de Mirandola
Pierleoni

genre and portraits; Alphonse Hirsch (1843-84),
genre and portraits ; Henry Baron (1816-85), his-
torical and genre; Auguste lladainard (1823-86),
genre; Benjamin Eugene Fichel (1826-95), historical
and genre; Eugene Alcan (1811-98), genre.

Germany: Philipp Arous (b. 1831), portraits;
liiuiolf Jonas (b. 1822), landscapes; Louis Katzen-
stein (1). 1824), portraits; Karl Daniel Friedrich
Bach (1756-1829), historical, genre, animals, and
portraits; Moses Samuel LOwe (1756-1831), minia-
ture and pastels; Felix Possjirt (b. 1837), landscapes
and genre; Hermann Junker (b. 1838), subjects from
Jewish life; Julius Bodenstein (b. 1847), land-
scapes; Jeremiah David Alexander Fiorino (1796-
1847), miniature; Max Liebcrmann (b. 1849), scenic
and genre; Rudolf Christian Eugen Bendemann (b.
1851), historical, genre, and mural decorations; Karl
Jacoby (b. 1853), historical and genre; Felix Bor-
chardt (b. 1857), scenic and portraits; Max Kahn
(b. 1857), genre; Wilhelm Feldmann (b. 1859), land-
scapes; Karl Blosz
(b. 1860), genre;
Julius Muhr (1819-
1865), genre; Her-
mann Goldschmidt
(1802-66), historic-
al; Eduard Magnus
(1799-1872), por-
traits and genre;
Johannes Veit
(1790-1854) and
Philipp Veit (1793-
1877), religious, his-
torical, and genre;
Julius Jacob (1811-
1882), landscapes
and portraits ;
Moritz Daniel Op-
penheim (1801-82),
subjects from Jew-
ish life, portraits,
and genre; Benja-
min Ulmann (1829-84), historical ; Eduard Julius
Friedrich Bendemann (1811-89), Biblical subjects,
portraits, and genre ; Max Michael (1823-91), genre ;
Alfred Kethel (1816-59) and Otto Rethel (1822-93),
frescos, historical, and genre; Karl Morgenstern
(1812-93), landscapes; Friedrich Kraus (1826-94),
portraits and genre; Louis Neustiittcr (1829-99),
genre and portraits; Solomon Hirschfeldcr (1832-
1903), genre.

Holland : Joseph Israels (b. 1834), genre ; David
Bles (1821-99), genre.

Italy : Raphael Bachi (c. 1750), miniature; Tullo
Massarani (b. 1826), genre; Giuseppe Coen (1811-
1856), landscapes and architectural ; Leopold Pollak
(1806-80), genre and portraits.

Rumania : Barbu Iscovescu (1816-54) ; Julius
Feld (1). 1871), portraits and genre.

Ilussia and Poland : Isaac Lvovich Asknazi
(b. 1856), religious subjects, genre, and portraits;
Jacob Semenovich Goldblatt (b. 1860), historical ;
Moisei Leibovich Maimon (b. 1860). genre and por-
traits; Peter Isaacovich Geller (b. 1862), Jewish his-
torical subjects; Samuel Ilirszenberg (b. 1866),
genre and scenic; Maurice Grun (b. 1870), genre
X.— 3

Tomb of Pierleoni In the

(From LauciaDi, *' New

and portraits; Jacques Kaplan (b. 1872), portraits
and genre; Alexancier Lesser (1814-84), historical;
Leonid Osipovich Pasternak (b. 1862), genre and
portraits.

Biiii.iocKAPHY : JUdiitche KUnstler, Berlin, 1903; S. J. Solo-
inoii. lu J. Q. It. 190a.

J. F. C.

PIDYON HA-BEN. See Primogenituue.

PIERLEONI : Noble Roman family of Jewish
origin. A Jewish banker of Rome who had acquired
a princely fortune was baptized in the first half of
the eleventh century, took the name of Benedictua
Christianus, and married the daughter of a Roman
nobleman. Leo, the offspring of this union, and
one of the most powerful magnates of the city, had
a castle in Trastevere and afflliated himself with
the papal party, and his son Petrus Leonis, from
whom the family derives its name, continued his
father's policy, controlling the Isola Tiberina in ad-
dition to the castle
in Trastevere, and
having another
castle opposite the
Tiber bridge near
the old theater of
Marcellus, which
was included in the
fortitications. He
was the leader of
the papal party and
the most faithful
and powerful pro-
tector of the popes.
Urban II. died in
Petrus' castle, and
the latter defended
the cause of Paschal
II. against the anti-
popes and the em-
peror. When
Henry V. came to
Rome Petrus Leonis was at the head of the papal
legation which eiTected a reconciliation between the
pope and the emperor, but Paschal's attempt to make
the son of Petrus i)refect of the city caused a riot.
Petrus was prominent in the liberation of Pope
Gelasius II., and when Petrus died in 1128 his son of
the same name was cardinal, and had on several
occasions rendered service to the Church. In 1130
Cardinal Pierleoni was elected pope under the name
of An.\cletus II., while the counter party chose
Innocent II. The schi.sm lasted for eight years, until
the death of Anacletus, after which the family of
Pierleoni made peace with the pope, retaining its
power and influence, and being distinguished by
various honors. Leo and Petrus, the brother and
nephew of Anacletus, were papal delegates at Sutri
in 1143, and another brother, Jordan, with whom the
era of senators begins, became the head of the Roman
lepublic as Patricius in 1144, while a sister is said
to have been the wife of Roger I. of Sicily. In tlic
twelfth century Cencius Pierleoni was "scriniarius"
of the Church, and in 1304 John Pierleoni, who had
been appointed elector by Pope Innocent III., chose
Gregory Petri Leonis Rainerii as senator. The leg-

Cloisters of St. Paul, Rome.

Tales of Ancient Rome.")

Pigeon

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

end vfhich traces the lineage of the family of Pier-
leoni to the ancient Roman noble family of the Anicii
is as apocryphal as the story of the descent of the
Hap^burgs from the counts of Aventin, who be-
longed to the F*ierleoni.

BiBLiOGRAPHT: BaTODius. -4 nnaJ<v EcfU*^i<istici, years 1111,
1115: QKgoTovius, GcMch. tit'f Stiuit Hum im Mittelalter,iv.
349 ct «:q., 3yi et seq.; vols. iv. and v., passim ; Liber Pntitift-
calin, ed. Duchesne, li. aU, 3(i7,318. 3ii. X*i, 344, 347 ; Monu-
menta (jennaukr HinOirka, v. 47- «-( *€</., xi. 614, xli. 711 ;
Ducbesoe, Hiit(«ntr fVn/iconmi :Stri><orM, iv. 376; Ollvleri,
n Seiiato di Roma. p. 185; Vogelsiein and Riejrer, Gesch.
der Judtn in Rmn. 1. 214 ft seq., 218, 221 et seq.; Kehr, in
Archiviit lUlla R. S'JcUtd Romana di Sturia Patria, xxiv.
(1901). pp. :Jo3 et se4i.
8 H. V.

PIGEON. See Dove.

PIGO : Italian family of rabbis. Formerly the
name was as a rule transcribed Figo ; in an Ital-
ian document of 1643 it appears in the form " Pichio " ;
and in Hebrew it is sometimes written Vp'D. To
this family belong Ephraim Pigo, a learned man
who died in Venice in UiUo or 1606, and the rabbis
Judah Pigo and Solomon Pigo ; the latter appear
in the responsa "Mayim Habbim " of Rabbi Raphael
Meldola.

Another branch of the family lived in Turkey.
Moses Pigo (d. in Adrianople 1576) wrote "Zik-
ron Torat Mosheh," a dictionary of the haggadic
themes (Constantinople, 1554; Prague, 1623). His
son Joseph Pigo of Salonica was the author of
"Teslmbol" and "Dine Bedikat ha-Re'ah " (Salo-
nica, 1652).

Bibliography: Mortara, Indice, pp. 49, 50; Berliner, Luhot
Ahanim, Nos. 130, 131; Winter and WQnsche, Die JVUUsche
Literatur. ii. 652 et Keg.; Sttiinschneider, Cat. Bodl. ool. 746;
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 232; Furst, Bihl. Jud. 1. 240.

G. I. E.

PI-HAHIROTH: A place in the wilderness
where the Israelites encamped when they turned
back from Etham. It lay between Migdol and the
sea "before Baal-zephon " (Ex. xiv. 2, 9; Num.
xxxiii. 7, 8). The etymology of the name, which is
apparently Egyptian, was the subject of much spec-
ulation by the ancient commentators. The Septua-
gint, while treating the word as a proper name in
Numbers (E(/3£jr>; translating, however, ^Q by crrd/za),
translates it in Exodus by rfjg kna'vT^ug (= "sheep-
fold " or "farm-building"), thus reading in the He-
brew text n-njn ■•a. The Mekilta (Beshallah, Wa-
yehi, 1) identifies the place with Pithom, which was
called Pi-hahiroth (= " the mouth of freedom ") after
the Israelites had been freed from bondage, the place
itself being specified as a valley between two high
rocks. The Targum of pseudo-Jonathan {ad loc),
while following the Mekilta in the interpretation of
"Pi-hahiroth," identifies the place with Tanis.

The theory of an Egyptian etymology was ad-
vanced by Jablonsky, who compared it to the Cop-
tic "pi-akl)irot" = "the place where sedge grows,"
and by Naville, who explained the name as "the
house of the goddess Kerliet." On the basis of tliis
latter explanation, Fulgence Fresnel identified Pi-
haliiroth with the modern Ghu\vaibatal-Bus(= "the
bed of reeds"), near Has Atakah.

Bibliography: Selble, in HastlnRs. Diet. Bible.

E. G. ii: M. Sel.

PIKES, ABRAHAM B. ELIJAH HA-
KOHZN : Genuau rabbi; meulioued in "Likku^e
Maharil," hilkots "Shabbat" and "Yom Kippur."
He addressed two letters to the community of Hal-
berstadt, in which he discussed the commandments
and prohibitions. He requested that his epistles
might be copied and read to others. These letters
were printed at Basel in 1599.

Bibliography : Michael, Or hon^am/im. No. 42.
E. c. S. O.

PILATE, PONTIUS : Fifth Roman procurator
of Judea, Samaria, and Idumaea. from 26 to 36 of the
common era; successor of Valerius Gratus. Accord-
ing toPhilo("De Legationead Caium,"ed. Maugey,
ii. 590), his administration was characterized by cor-
ruption, violence, robberies, ill treatment of the peo-
ple, and continuous executions without even the
form of a trial. His very first act nearly caused a
general insurrection. While his predecessors, re-
specting the religious feelings of tlie Jews, removed
from their standards all the effigies and images when
entering Jerusalem, Pilate allowed his soldiers to
bring them into the city by night. As soon as this
became known crowds of Jews hastened to Caesarea,
where the procurator was residing, and besought
him to remove the images. After five days of dis-
cussion he ordered his soldiers to surround the peti-
tioners and to put them to death unless they ceased
to trouble him. He yielded only when he saw that
the Jews would rather die than bear this affront.
At a later date Pilate appropriated funds from the
sacred treasury in order to provide for the construc-
tion of an aqueduct for supplying the city of Jeru-
salem with water from the Pools of Solomon; and
he suppressed the riots provoked by this spoliation
of the Temple by sending among the crowds dis-
guised soldiers carrying concealed daggers, who
massacred a great number, not only of the rioters,
but of casual spectators.

In spite of his former experience of the sensitive-
ness of the Jews with regard to images and emblems,
Pilate hung up in Herod's palace gilt shields dedi-
cated to Tiberius, and again nearly provoked an in-
surrection. The shields were removed by a special
order of Tiberius, to whom the Jews had protested.
Pilate's last deed of cruelty, and the one which
brought about his downfall, was the massacre of a
number of Samaritans who had assembled on Mount
Gerizim to dig for some sacred vessels which an
impostor had led them to believe Moses had buried
there. Concerning this mas.sacre the Samaritans
lodged a complaint with Vitellius, legate of Syria,
who ordered Pilate to repair to Rome to defend him-
self. On the participation by Pilate in the trial and
crucifixion of Jesus see Cuucikixion; Jesus of
Nazaketh.

The end of Pilate is enveloped in mystery. Ac-
cording to I>usebius ("Hist. Eccl." ii. 7), he was
banished to Vienna (Vienne) in Gaul, where various
misfortunes caused him at last to commit suicide;
while the chronicle of Malalas alleges, with less
probability, that he was beheaded under Nero. A
later legend says that his suicide was anticipatory of
Caligula's sentence; that the body was thrown into
the Tiber, causing disastrous tempests and floods;

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pigeon
Pili^riinag'e

that it afterward produced similar effects in tlie
Rlione at Vienue; and that, finally, it had to be con-
signed to a deep pool among the Alps.

Bibliography: Josephus. Ant. xvlll. 3, § 12; idem. B.J. 11. 9
6§ 2A ; Ewald, Gtach. iv. 594 ; v. 4»-9.') ; vl. 319. 322-;{;£J 343 •
Gratz, Gesch. 111. 253-271 ; Schurer, Gesch. 1. 4«8 -492; Bniiini
Die S6hiu dee Herodes, 1873, pp. 1-16; Mommsen, HOininche
Geschichte, v. 508 ct acq.

6- I. Br.

PILEGESH (Hebrew, {J^J^^D; comp. Greek, TraA-
Aa«/f).— Biblical Data: A concubine recognized
among the ancient Hebrews. She enjoyed the same
rights in the house as the legitimate wife. Since it
was regarded as the highest blessing to have many
children, while the greatest curse was childless-
ness, legitimate wives themselves gave their maids
to their husbands to atone, at least in part, for their
own barrenness, as in the cases of Sarah and Hagar,
Leah and Zilpah, Rachel and Bilhah. The concu-
bine commanded the same respect and inviolability
as the wife ; and it was regarded as the deepest dis-
honor for the man to whom she belonged if hands
were laid upon her. Thus Jacob never forgave his
eldest son for violating Bilhah (Gen. xxxv. 22, xlix.
4). According to the story of Gibeah, related in
Judges xix., 25,000 warriors of the tribe of Benja-
min lost their lives on account of the maltreatment
and death of a concubine. Abner, Saul's first gen-
eral, deserted Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, who had re-
proached his leader with having had intercourse
with Rizpah, the daughter of his royal father's con-
cubine, Aiah (H Sam. iii. 7); and Absalom brought
the greatest dishonor upon David by open inter-
course with his father's concubines (zJ. xvi. 21 etseg.).
The children of the concubine had equal rights
with those of the legitimate wife. Abraham dis-
missed his natural sons with gifts (Gen. xxv. 6), and
Jacob's sons by Bilhah and Zilpah were equal with
his sons by Leah and Rachel ; while Abimelech, who
subsequently became king over a part of Israel, was
the son of Gideon- jerubbaal and his Shechemite con-
cubine (Judges viii. 31). In the time of the Kings
the practise of taking concubines was no longer due
to childlessness but to luxury. David had ten con-
cubines (II Sam. XV. 16), who, however, also did
housework; Solomon had 300 (I Kings xi. 30); and
his son Rehoboam had sixty (II Chron. xi. 21).

Bibliography : Hastings, Diet. Bible, s.v. Marriage ; Stade
Gesch. lar. 1. 385, 636 ; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Kch»weib.
I'-- G. II. S. O.

In Rabbinical Literature : According to the

Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. 21a), the difference be-
tween a concubine and a legitimate wife was that
the latter received a Ketubah and her marriage
was preceded by a formal betrothal ("kiddusliin "),
which was not the case with the former (comp. Rashi
on Gen. xxv. 6, and Nahmanides ad loc). Accord-
ing to R. Judah (Yer. Ket. v. 29d), however, the
concubine also received a ketubah, but without the
aliment pertaining to it.
E. c. S. O.

PILGRIMAGE : A journey which is made to
a shrine or sacred place in performance of a vo« or
for the sake of obtaining some form of divine bless-
ing. Every male Israelite was required to \ isit the
Temple three times a year (Ex. xxiii. 17; Deut. xvi.

16). The pilgrimage to Jerusalem on one of the
three festivals of Passover, Shabu'ot, and Sukkot
was called "re'iyah" (="the appearance"). The
Mishnah says, "All are under obligation to appear,
except minors, women, the blind, the lame, theagedi
and one who is ill physically or mentally." A minor
in this case is defined as one who is too young to be
taken by his fatlier to Jerusalem. According to the
Mosaic law every one should take an
Pilgrimage offering, though the value thereof is
to First not fixed (comp. Ex. xxxiii. 14; Deut.
Temple. xvi. 17); the Mishnah, however, fixed
the minimum at three silver pieces,
each of thirty-two grains of fine silver (Hag. i. 1, 2).
While the appearance of women and infant males
was not obligatory, they usually accompanied their
husbands and fathers, as in all public gatherings
(Deut. xxxi. 12). The Talmud plainly infers that
both daughters and sons joined the pilgrims at the
Passover festival in Jerusalem (Pes. 89a; Git. 25a).
According to the Biblical accounts, Jeroboam,
who caused the secession of Ephraim from Judah[
made two calves of gold, placing one in Dan and the
other in Beth-el, to divert the pilgrims from Jerusa-
lem (I Kings xii. 26-33). He stationed guards on
the boundary-lines of his dominions to prevent the
festival pilgrimages to the Temple (Ta'an. 28a). So
great a menace to the Ephraimite government were
the Temple pilgrimages that even King Jehu, who
destroyed the Ba'al, feared to remove the golden
calves of Jeroboam (II Kings x. 28, 29). In Judea
the pilgrimages to Jerusalem were kept up regu-
larly, but the principal gathering of the people was
on the Sukkot festival, called "Hag ha-Asif" =
"Festival of Gathering" (I Kings viii. 65; II Chron.
vii. 8, 9). King Josiah revived the Passover pil-
grimage to Jerusalem (II Kings xxiii. 23). King
Hoshea, son of Elah, dismissed the guards and per-
mitted the people to go undisturbed to Jerusalem
for the festivals (Yer. Ta'an. iv. 7; Git. 88a).

During the time of the Second Temple, the Ju-
deans ruled Palestine and as a united people cele-
brated the Feast of Sukkot in Jerusalem (Neh. viii.
17). From beyond Palestine, especially from the
River Euphrates, they journeyed to
Pilgrimage Jerusalem for the festivals. Some
to Second even endangered their lives passing
Temple, the guards posted to stop the pilgrim-
ages (Ta'an. 28a: Gratz, "Gesch." 3d
ed., iii. 157, 668). The number of Jewish pilgrims
to the Temple was computed by the governor
Gesius Flouus (64-66), who counted 256,500 pas-
chal lambs atone Passover festival; allowing ten
persons to one lamb, this would make 2,565,000 pil-
grims (Josephus, "B. J." vi. 9). The Tosefta re-
cords the census of Agrippa, who ordered the priests
to take one hind leg of every paschal lamb, and
counted 1,200,000 legs, which would make the total
12,000,000 (Tosef., Pes. iv. 64b). These figures are
evidently exaggerated, and are based on the desire
to double the 600,000 of the Exodus, a tendency
frequently noticed in the Haggadah. It is calculated
that ancient Jerusalem comprised an area of 2,400,-
000 square yards, and, allowing 10 yards for each
person, would contain 240.000 persons (see Luncz,
"Jerusalem," i., English part, pp. 83-102).

Pilgrimage

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

The facilities provided for the convenience of the
pilgrims were such as to encourage pilgrimages.
Special measures were taken to repair the roads
leading to Jerusalem and to dig wells along the
route (Shek. i. 1, v. 1). Thirty days before the fes-
tival it was forbidden to engage professional mourn-
ers to bewail the dead lest they get their compensa-
tion from the money intended to be spent in Je-
rusalem (M. K. viii. 1). The hides of the sacrifices
•were left to compensate the innkeepers for lodging
the pilgrims, and no other fee was allowed (Yoma
12a). The inhabitants of Jerusalem received the
pilgrims hospitably ; the priests permitted them to
see the show bread and told them of the miracle
connected with it (Yoma 21b). Public speakers
praised and thanked the pilgrims (Suk. 49b; Pes.
5b). The ceremony attending the offering of the
first-fruits (see Bikkcrim) in Jerusalem (Deut. xxvi.
a-4), which commenced on Shabu'ot (the Feast of
Harvest; comp. E.\. xxiii. 16), is supposed to give
a general idea of the reception accorded to the
pilgrims.

The pilgrimages to Jerusalem did not cease with
the destruction of the Temple (Cant. R. iv. 2). The
■women often joined their husbands, sometimes in
spite of the protests of the latter (Ned.
Post-Exilic 23a). But the joy that attended the
Pil- former pilgrimages, when the Temple

grimages. was still in existence, changed to
lamentations for the loss of national
and political independence. The pilgrims mourned
the destruction of the Temple and cried : " Thy holy
cities are now in ruins; Zion is a wilderness; Jeru-
salem is a desolation. Our Sanctuary, the pride of
our ancestors, is burned down, and all our precious
things are destroyed " (M. K. 26a).

The Karaites, in the ninth century, likewise
showed great devotiowto Jerusalem. Their hakam,
Sahl ibn Mazliah, wrote to Jacob b. Samuel that
Karaite pilgrims of various towns gathered to pray
for the restoration of Zion; these pilgrims he de-
scribed as Nazarites who abstained from wine and
meat (Pinsker, " Likkute Kadmouiyyot," Appendix,
p. 31). A company of Karaites, headed by Moses
ha-Yerushalmi, journeyed from Chufut-Kale ("The
Jewish Rock "), from tlie Crimea, and from the Cau-
casus. The inscription on Moses' tombstone, dated
4762 (1002), reads: " Good luck followed him and his
companions to the tomb of King David
Karaite and of his son Solomon, which no
Pil- other persons heretofore had been per-

grimages. mittcd to enter." All pilgrims to Pal-
estine were sent out with music and
song in honor and praise of the Holy Land. The
pilgrims on their return were known as " Jerusalem-
ites" (see tlie Karaite Siddur, part iv. ; " Luah Ere/
Yisrael." v. 22).

The Turkish conquest under Saladin (1187) secured
to the Oriental Jews the privilege of visiting Jeru-
salem and the sacred places. Numerous pilgrims
went from Damascus, Babylonia, and Egypt, and
they remained in Jerusalem over Passover and Sha-
bu'ot. Na^mani, in a letter dated 1268, writes:
"Many men and women from Damascus, Babylon,
and their vicinities come to Jerusalem to see the site
of the Holy Temple and to lament its destruction."

About fifty years later Estori Farhi notes the custom
of the brethren of Damascus, Aleppo, Tripoli, and
Alexandria to go to Jerusalem for the holy days " in
order to express their grief" ("Kaftor wa-Ferah,"
ed. Edelmann, vi. 19). Among the Eastern Jews,
especially those of Babylonia and Kurdistan, it has
been the custom from the fourteenth century onward
to go on a pilgrimage at least once a year, many of
them actually walking the whole distance. The
era of the Crusades evidently encouraged pilgrim-
ages of Jews from Europe; a most noteworthy ex-
ample is that of JcDAU ii.\-Levi (1140). Mei'r of
Rothenburg was made a prisoner on his way to Pal-
estine. Samuel b. Simsou (13th cent.) received per-
mission from the governor of Jerusalem to visit the
cave of Machpelah at Hebron. It was on his invi-
tation that 300 rabbis journeyed from France and
England into Palestine in 1210. These pilgrimages
became so frequent that Hayyim benHananeel ha-
Kohen felt compelled to issue a warning against
them (Tos. Ket. 110b, s.v. IDIS Nim).

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, and
the consequent settlement of manj' exiles in Turkish
territory, largely increased the number of pilgrims.
The goal of their journeys was chiefly
European the tomb of Samuel the Prophet at
Pil- Ramah, where they held annual com-

grimages. munions and celebrations, similar in
character to the celebrations instituted
on Lag be-'OMER, a century later, at the tombs of
R. Simeon b. Yohai and his son Eleazar in Mcron.
In 1700 Judah he-Hasid of Siedlce and Gedaliah of
Siemjatiszcz started upon a pilgrimage from Poland
(Griitz, "Gesch." x. 340); they were accompanied
by R. Nathan Note, rabbi at The Hague and author
of "Me'orot Natan." In 1765 a company of four-
teen families from Poland and Lithuania, mostly
Hasidim, went on a pilgrimage to Palestine. Among
them was Simhah b. Samuel, author of "Binyan
shel Simhah." He writes that he stayed at Con-
stantinople, where the Jewish community provided
passage for the pilgrims to Palestine. There were
110 Sephardim in the vessel that took him to Jaffa
(Luncz, "Jerusalem," iv. 137-152).

In modern times the term "pilgrimage," with Its
ancient and medieval meaning, has ceased to be ap-
plicable. Sir Moses Montefiore and his wife Judith
made a visit of piety to the Holy Land in 1828; in
a later one they were accompanied by L. L5we,
and many other individuals made similar visits.
The Zionist movement led to the formation of a
number of parties for the purpose of making visits
of piety to Palestine and the holy places. While
on such a visit, in 1890, R. Samuel Mohilewer and
Dr. Joseph Chazanowicz founded a Jewish library
in Jeru.salem. The Jews of Palestine complain of
the lack of interest on the part of their coreligionists
elsewhere as compared with the thousands of Chris-
tians who avail themselves of modern opportunities
to visit the Holy Land.

The following is a partial list of noted Jewish
pilgrims and visitors to Palestine from the twelfth
century up to the present time:

114(1. Judah ha- Levi.
116.5. Mo.ses Malmonldes.
1171. Benjamin of Tudela.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pilsrimaere

1178. Petliahlnh of Rppensburg.
1^10. Abruhain Muirnonldes.

1210. Samuel b. Siiiison with R. Jonathan ba-Koben of Lunei
("Itint-raires," pp. 115, 122).

1216. Judah al-Harizi.
1257. Jehicl of Paris.

12.58. Jacob of Paris ("Slmane ha-Kebarim ").

1207. Moses Nahiiiani.

i:?18. Kstori Far'hl.

1334. Isaac b. Joseph Chelo of Spain (author of "Sblbhe dl-Ye-
ruslialayim ").

1438. Elijah of Ferrara (author of " Ahabat ZIyyon ").

1440. Isaac b. Alpera of Malaga (wlio corresponded with Rabbi
Duran ; " Sefer Yuhasin," ed. Filipowski, p. 228).

1450. Jose|>li 1). Nahniau ha-Levl (sent list of sacred tombs to
Rat)ln Durau; " Sefer Yuhasin," i.e.).

1481. MeshuUain b. Menahem of Volaterra (see bis letters in
Luncz's "Jerusalem," i. 166-227).

1488. Obadiah da Bertinoro.

15(K). Jacol) Silkili of Sicily ("Sefer Yuhasin," I.e.).

1523. Israel of i'crugia ("Jerusalem," iii. DT).

1523. David Ucubeni.

15;}5. Isaac Meir Latif.

1540. Gershon b. Asher Scarmelo (author of "Yihus ha-Zaddl-
kim").

1564. I'ri b. Simeon of Biel (author of " Yiljus ha-Alxit").

1582. Simeon Hack (letters in "Jerusalem," ii. 141-157).

1600. Solomon Shlomel b. Havyim of Lattenburg.

1614. Mordecai b. Isaiah Litz of Raussnitz, Austria.

1624. Gershon b. Eliezer ha-Levi (author of " Gelilot Ere? Yis-
rael").

IMl. Samuel b. David Yemsbel i^Z'r:"^), a Karaite. (The name
" Yemshel" is the abbreviation of di^'^' 13D1I'0 '"'H nij\)
He was accompanied by Moses b. Elijah ha-Levi of
Kafla, Feodosia (Gurland, "Ginze Yisrael," pp. 31-43).

1650. Moses b. Naphtali Hirsch Priiger (author of " Darke ?iy-
yon ").

16R5. Benjamin b. Elijah, a Karaite (" Ginze Ylsrael," pp. 44-64).

1701. Judah he-Hasid of Siedlce.

1740. Hayyim Abulafla of Smyrna.

1747. Abraham Gershon Kutewer (of Kuty), brother-in-law of
Israel BeSHT.

1753. Aryeh Judah Meisel of Opatow.

17.58. Joseph Sofer of Brody (author of " Iggeret Yosef," a jour-
nal of his travels, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1761).

176.'). Siuihah b. Joshua (author of "Sippure Erez lia-Galil ").

1765. Moses lia-Yerushalml (author of " Yede Mosheh," de-
scription of sacred graves).

1768. Perez b. Moses (author of "Shebah u-Tehillah le-Erez
Yisrael," Amsterdam, 1769).

1777. Israel Politzkl, Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, and Abraham
Kallsker (Luncz, "Jerusalem." v. 164-174).

1799. Nahman Bratzlavof Horodok, a Hasid (author of " Maggid
Slhot," a description of his journey to Palestine).

1805. Menahem Mendel and Israel of Shklov (disciples of Elijah
of Wilna).

1828. Moses Monteflore.

]83;5. Joseph Schwarz (author of " Tebu'ot ha-Arez ").

1837. Menahem Mendel b. Aaron of Kamenec (author of " 'Aliy-
yat ha-Arez," Wilna, 1839).

1854. Albert Colin of Paris.

18i56. L. A. Frankl (authorof " Nach Jerusalem ").

1867. Charles Netter of Paris.

1872. Heinncli Graetz.

1890. R. Samuel Mohilewer.

1897. Israel Zangwill.

1898. Theodor Herzl.

For a list of sacred tombs see Tombs; see also
TuAVEi.ERs IN Palestine.

Bini.iOGRAPiiY: Carmoly, Ttinfraires de la Terre Sainte,

Brussels, 1847; Gurland, Ginze Yisrael, vol. 1., Lyck, 1865;
Luncz, Luah, v. 5-59.
D. J. D. E.

Pilgrimages are made usually on fixed days in the

year, called by the Oriental and North-African Jews

"days of zi'arah " ; on such days it is customary to

visit the tombs or relics of certain per-

Customs. sonagos wlin in earl}' or medieval times

were famous as kings or prophets or

for their holy lives. There are other lioly places

which the people honor as thcj' Avill and at any

time. Tiie days of pilgrimage are celebrated by

prayers, rejoicings, and popular festivals.

In Jerusalem a crowd of Jews gathers before the
western wail of tlie Temple of Solomon ("Kotel
Ma'arabi") every Friday evening and on the eves of
feast-days, as well as on twenty-three successive
days from the eve of the 17th of Tammuz to tlie
9tii of Ab inclusive. On the latter date this re-
ligious service occurs at midnight. On the 6th of
Siwan, the Day of Pentecost, the Sephardic Jews
go to pray at the tombs of the kings of Judah at the
foot of JMount Zion. On the following day they
pray at tlie tomb of the high priest Simon the Just,
and at the tombs of other holy men in the neighbor-
hood, while the Ashkenazim gather at the tombs of
the kings of Judah. On the 18th of lyyar, called
" Lag be-'Omer," all the Jews of Jerusalem, Sephar-
dlm and Ashkenazim, pray at the tomb of Simon
the Just.

At liurak, between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, is
tlie tomb of Rachel, wife of the patriarch Jacob, to
which the Jews of Jerusalem go by turns during
the thirty days of the month of Elul. But the 15th
of Heshwan is especially consecrated to this pilgrim-
age (Benjamin II., "Mas'e Yisrael," pp. 3-6, Lyck,
1859). At Kama, near Jerusalem, known in Arabic
as "Nabi Samwil," all the Jews of the latter city
gather on the 28th of lyyar at the
In tomb of the prophet Samuel. The

Palestine, pious even pass the night there. At
Khaifa, a port of Palestine, on the eve-
ning of the Sabbath which foUoAvs the anniversary
of the destruction of the Temple, the Jews hold a
popular festival, with illuminations, in a grotto, .sit-
uated on the summit of Mount Carmel, in which the
prophet Elijah is said to have taken refuge from
tlie persecution of King Ahab. At Tiberias on the
night of the 14th of lyyar, known as " Pesah Sheni "
(Num. ix. 9-14), Jews gather from all parts of Pal-
estine, and there are brilliant illuminations and a
popular festival at the tomb of Rabbi Meiu ("Ba'al
ha-Nes" = "the miracle-worker").

At Safed, from the morning after Passover (22d
of Nisan) till the 18th of lyyar, every week the
Jewish population ceases to work, and makes pil-
grimages to the suburbs in the following order;
namely, to (1) Biria, where is the tomb of Beuaiah
ben Jehoiada, David's general; (2) the tomb of
the prophet Hosea in the cemetery; and (3) 'Ain
Zaitun, to the tomb of Joseph Saragossi, a Spanish
immigrant who reorganized the commimity of Sa-
fed in 1492. On tlie night of Lag be-'Omer all tlie
able-bodied Jews of Safed and several thousands
of pilgrims from Palestine, Turkey, northern Africa,
the Caucasus, and Persia celebrate a great popular
festival witli illuminations at Meron, near Safed, at
the mausoleum of Si.meon ben Yotiai. At each
new moon it is considered essential among the Ash-
kenazim of Safed — men, women, and children — to
make a pilgrimage to the tomb of Isaac Lvuia, the
famous cabalist. At Sidon, toward the end of ly-
yar, people from the most distant parts of Palestine
make a pilgrimage to tiie tomb of Zebulun, one of
the sons of the patriarch Jacob.

Places of pilgrimage exist not only in Palestine,
but also in Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, Egypt, Algeria,

Pilgrimage
Pilpul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

and Morocco. In Mesopotamia the places of pilgrim-
age are Bagdad, KiffL-l, and Bassora. At Bagdad,
at the very gates of the towu, is the mausoleum of the
high priest Joshua, known under the popular name
of the " Kohen Mausoleum. " At each new moon it is
visited by thousands of Jews and cs-
In Meso- pecially by barren women. In the
potamia. local cemetery the tomb of the sheik
Isjiac, a revered Jew, is also an object
of frequent pilgrimages. At Ketil, a locality in Irak
near the ruins of Babylon, is the tomb of the prophet
Ezekiel, to which the Jews of Mesopotamia go on
pilgrimage on the (ith of Siwan (Pentecost). At Bas-
sora the tomb of Ezra is visited on the same date.

In Kurdistan the Jews have three places of pil-
grimatre: (1) In the district of Elkosh, near Mosul,
the tomb of the prophet Nahum is a place of pil-
grimage for fourteen days, the eight days preceding
and the six following Pentecost. Readings are given
from the prophecy of Nahum from a manuscript
supposed to have been written by the prophet him-
self. (2) At Kerkuk, between the upper and lower
parts of the town, are four tombs, said
In Kurdis- to be those of Daniel, Hananiah, Misli-
tan and ael, and Azariah, to which the Jews of
Persia. the district make pilgrimages at Pen-
tecost. (3) In the locality of Bar-Ta-
nura, thirty hours distant from Mosul, is a grotto in
which the prophet Elijah is said to have taken ref-
uge. Several times a year the Jews of this region
go thither on pilgrimage and contribute to the main-
tenance of the grotto.

In Persia there are two places to which Jews
make pilgrimages. (1) At Ramadan, near the for-
tress, is an ancient mausoleum containing the tombs
of Mordecai and Esther. On the 14th of Adar, the
festival of Purim, the Jews of the region read the
Book of Esther at these tombs; pilgrimages to them
are made also at each new moon and in times of
danger. (2) Twelve and one-half miles from Ispa-
han, in the middle of the fields, is a little synagogue
which, according to local tradition, contains the
tomb of Sarah, daughter of Aslier (Num. xxvi. 46).
The Jews of the neighborhood go thither on jiil-
grimage on the 1st of Elul.

At Fostator Old Cairo, in Egypt, three miles from
Cairo, is a synagogue built in the year 1051 (29
Sha'han, A.n. 429) by Abu Sa'ad, a favorite of the
calif Al Mustansir Ma'ad (Griltz, "Gescli." vi. 152).
This synagogue contains a tomb in
In Eg-ypt, which, according to local tradition,
Algeria, the prophet Jeremiah rests, and two
and little rooms built over the |)laces where

Morocco, the prophets Elijah and Ezra prayed.
On the 1st of Elul all the Jews of
Cairo go on pilgrimage to Fostat and hold a mag-
nificent festival there.

Thereexistin Algeria traditional tombs of revered
Jews which are venerated e(|ually by Jews and Mo-
hammedans. Prayers are said at them in times of
stress, but not at regular dates. In the district of
southern Oran. in the region of Nedrona, inliabited
by the Traras, are the tombs of Sidi Usha (Joshua)
and his father, Sidi Nun. In the department of
Oran on the Ilif frontier is the tomb of a certain
R. Jacob Roshdi, which is frequently visited.

In Morocco, as in Algeria, certain tombs are
equally venerated by Jews and Mohammedans, but
there are no fixed days for prayer ; e.g. : at Al-Kasar,
that of H. Judah Jabali; atTarudaut, that of H. Da-
vid ben Baruch ; and at Wazan, that of R. Amram
ben Diwan. Amram was one of the rabbis sent out
periodically by the rabbinate of Palestine to collect
money, lie traveled in company with his son; and
when the latter fell sick, Amram prayed to God to
accept the sacrifice of his own life and to save that of
his child. The son recovered, but the father died, and
was buried at Jabal Assen. His tomb is said to be
surrounded b}' a halo, and miracles are said to have
taken jilace there. The 7th of lyyar is the principal
dav of the local pilgrimages (see "Journal des De-
bats," Paris, Oct. 27, 1903).

In Podolia and Galicia and even in the northern
parts of Hungary the tombs of Hasidic rabbis and
niiraclc-workers are visited on the anniversaries of
their deaths, and on other occasions by people in dis-
tress. Lamps are burned and prayers are recited;
and often letter-boxes are found at the tombs, in
which the pilgrims deposit slips on which their
wishes are written.

Biiii.ior.RAPHY : Luncz, Lvah Erez Ym-aeU IntrfxiuPtlon, Jeru-
salem, 189.^; Benjamin 11., 3/a.s'e I'israc/, Lyck, 1K59; Bui'
Jetiii Amiuel de VAUiaJice IsraHite Uiiivenelle, 1888,
1898; Revue des Ecolen de VAUiance Israelite Univeiselle,
Paris, 1901, 1902.

D. M. Fr.

PILLAR: The word "pillar" is used in the
English versions of the Bible as an equivalent for
the following Hebrew words:

(1) "Omenol," feminine plural of the active par-
ticiple of |0X = "support," "confirm." This word
occurs only in II Kings xviii. 16. In the Revised
Version (margin) the rendering is "door-posts."

(2) " Mazzebah " (R. V. , margin, " obelisk "). This
denotes a monolith erected as a monument or me-
morial stone (as the " pillar of Rachel's grave," Gen,
XXXV. 20, and "Absalom's monument," II Sam.
xviii. 18; comp. I Mace. xiii. 27-30), or as a bound-
ary-mark and witness of a treaty (Gen. xxxi. 44-54;
comp. Isa. xix. 19), or as a memorial of a divine ap-
peaiance or intervention. Such stones often ac-
quired a sacred character, and were regarded as
dwelling-places of the Deity or were made to serve
as rude altars upon which libations were poured

(Gen. XXXV. 14, xxxviii. 18-22; I Sam.
Memorial vii. 12; possibly also Gen. xxxiii. 20,
Stones. where the verb used indicates the orig-
inal reading to have been n3VD =
"pillar," instead of n3TD = "altar").

In the earlier periods of Hebrew history and as
late as the reign of Jo.siah one or more of these stone
pillars stood in every sanctuary or "high place."
Thus Moses built an altar at Sinai, and "twelve pil-
lars according to the twelve tribes of Israel" (Ex.
xxiv. 4; comp. Josli. xxiv. 26; IIos. iii. 4, x. 1-2;
I.sa. xix. 19). Similar pillars stood at the Canaan-
itish altars of Baal (Ex. xxiii. 24, xxxiv. 13; Deut.
vii. 5, xii. 3; II Kings iii. 2, x. 26-27) and in the
sanctuaries of Tyre (Ezek. xxvi. 11) and of Ileliop-
olis, in Egypt (.Jer. xliii. 13). The recent excava-
tions of the Palestine Exploration Fund at Gezer
have revealed a row of eight monoliths on the .site
of the ancient high place. These are hewed to a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Filgrrima^e
Pilpul

roughly square or round section and one to a sliarp
point ("Pal. Explor. Fund Quarterly Statement,"
Jan., 1903).

By the Deuteronomic and Levitical codes the use
of the mazzebah as well as of the asherim at the
altars of Jehovah was forbidden as savoring of idol-
atry (Deut. .\vi. 21-32; Lev. .xxvi. 1). It is proba-
ble that these had become objects of

Deutero- worship and as such were denounced
nomic and by the Prophets (Mic. v. 13-14; comp.

Levitical I Kings xiv. 23; 11 Kings xvii. 10,
Pro- xviii. 4, xxiii. 14). Some such stone

hibitions. idols seem to be referred to in Judges
iii. 19, 26 (comp. the Arabic "nusb").
The term "hammanim," rendered "images" and
"sun-images," is probably used of later and more
artistically shaped or carved pillars of the same
character as the mazzebah (Lev. xxvi. 30; Isa. xvii.
8, xxvii. 9; Ezek. vi. 4, 6; II Chron. xiv. 3, 5;
xxxiv. 4, 7).

(3) "Nezib " (from the same root as " mazzebah "),
while rendered "pillar" in Gen. xix. 26, is eLsewhere
translated "garrison" (I Sam. x. 5) and "officer"
(I Kings iv. 19). In the second passage, however,
the JSeptuagint renders it by avcicTTjfia, ''■i.e., prob-
ably a pillar erected as a symbol or trophy of Phi-
listine domination " (Driver, " Hebrew Text of Sam-
uel," p. 61; so, also, H. P. Smith, Wellhausen, and
others).

(4) "Mis'ad " (I Kings x. 12; R. V., margin, "rail-
ing," "prop "). The precise meaning is unknowm.

(5) "'Ammud," the word which occurs most fre-
quently in this sense, is used of the pillars or col-
umns which support a house or the roof of a house
(Judges xvi. 25-29), of the posts which supported
the curtains of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. 10, 17;
xxxvi. 36-38; Num. iii. 36-37), and of the pillars in
the Temple (I Kings vii. 2, 3, 6; comp. Ezek. xlii.
6; Prov. ;■ 1). They were made of acacia-wood
(Ex. xxvi. 32, 37; xxxvi. 36), of cedar (I Kings vii.
2), or of marble (Esth. i. 6; comp. Cant. v. 15). A
detailed description is given in I Kings vii. of two
bra.ss or bronze pillars which were fashioned by Hi-
ram for King Solomon and set up in the

Pillars of porchof the Temple, and to which were
the given the names "Jachin" ("He [or

Temple, "It"] shall establish") and "Boaz"
(" In him [or " it "] is strength "). The
word is used also of the columns or supports of a
litter (Cant. iii. 10). It denotes, too, the column of
smoke rising from a conflagration (Judges xx. 40), and
particularly the column of smoke and of flame which
attended the Israelites in the wilderness (Ex. xiii.
21-22, xiv. 24; Num. xiv. 14). An iron pillar isa
symbol of strength (Jer. i. 18); and in poetry the
earth and the heavens are represented as resting on
pillars (Job ix. 5, xxvi. 11; Ps. Ixxv. 4).

(6; "Mazuk," probably a molten support; hence
a "pillar" (I Sam. ii. 8).

(7) " Timarah " ; in the plural, " pillars " of smoke
(Cant. iii. 6; Joel iii. 3). Compare "tomer" (Jer. x.
5, H. v., margin; Baruch vi. 70), which probably
means a "scarecrow."

Bibliography : W. R. Smith. Rel. nf Sem. 2d ed., pp. 201-212,
456-457; Nowack, Hehriiische Arc)i{lnU>fjie; Wellhausen,
Reste Arnbu<chen Heidentumes, 2d ed.. pp. 101, 141 : Conder,
Syrian Stone Lore, new ed., p. 86 ; Driver, Commentary on

Oen. TTviU. 2S, and on Dexit. xvi. Si ; Dlllmann. Commentary
on the same passagea ; Whitehouse, PiUais, in Hastlnirs, Diet.
JiibU.
E. C. J. F. McL.

PILLAR OF FIRE: The Israelites during their
wanderings liirough the desert were guided in the
night-time by a pillar of fire to give them light (Ex.
xiii. 21 ; Num. xiv. 14; Neh. ix. 12, 19). The pillar
of fire never departed from them during the night
(Ex. xiii. 22); according to Shab. 33b, it appeared
in the evening before the pillar of cloud had disap-
peared, so that the Lsraelites were never without a
guide. God troubled the Egyptian hosts through
a pillar of fire and of cloud (Ex. xiv. 24). Tliere is a
legend that Onkelos, by narrating to the messen-
gers sent by the emperor to seize him that God
Himself was the torch-bearer of the Israelites, con-
verted them to Judaism ('Ab. Zarah 11a).

E. G. H. M. Sel.

PILLITZ, DANIEL. See Burger, Theodor.

PILPUL : A method of Talmudic study. The
word is derived from the verb "pilpel" (lit. "to
spice," "to season, "and in a metaphorical sense, "to
dispute violently" [Tosef., B. B. vii. 5] or "clev-
erly" [Shab. 31a; B. M. 85b]). Since by such dis-
putation the subject is in a way spiced and seasoned,
the word has come to mean penetrating investiga-
tion, disputation, and drawing of conclusions, and
is used especially to designate a method of studying
the Law (Ab. vi. 5; Baraita, B. B. 145b; Tem. 16a;
Ket. 103b; Yer. Ter. iv. 42d). For another explana-
tion of the word, as derived from the Hebrew "pil-
lel," .see J. B. Lewinsohn, "Bet Yehudah," ii. 47,
Warsaw, 1878.

The essential characteristic of pilpul is that it
leads to a clear comprehension of the subject under
discussion by penetrating into its essence and by
adopting clear distinctions and a strict difl"erentiation
of the concepts. By this method a sentence or maxim
is carefully studied, the various concepts which it
includes are exactly determined, and all the possible
consequences to be deduced from it arc carefully
investigated. The sentence is tiien examined in its
relation to some other sentence harmonizing with it,
the investigation being directed toward determining
whether the agreement appearing on a superficial
contemplation of them continues to be manifest when
all the possible consequences and deductions are
drawn from each one of them; for if contradictory
deductions follow from the two apparently agreeing
sentences, then this apparent agree-

Descrip- ment is not an agreement in fact,
tion of Again, if two sentences apparently

Method. contradict each other, the pilpulistic
method seeks to ascertain whether this
seeming contradiction may not be removed by a more
careful definition and a more exact limitation of the
concepts connected with the respective sentences.
If two contiguous sentences or maxims apparentlj'
imply the same thing, this method endeavors to
decide whether the second sentence is really a repe-
tition of the first and could have been omitted, or
whether by a more subtle differentiation of the con-
cepts a different shade of meaning may be discovered
between them. Similarly if a regulation is mentioned
in connection with two parallel cases, this method

Pilpul

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

determines whether it might not have Ijeen concluded
from the similarity of the cases itself that the regu-
lation appl.ving to the one applied to the other also,
and why it was necessary to repeat explicitly the
same regulation.

The pilpulistic method, however, is not satisfied
wiih merely attaining the object of its investiga-
tion. After having reached the desired result in one
way, it inquires whether the same result might not
have been attained in another, so that, if the first
method of procedure should be eventually refuted,
another method and another proof for the result at-
tained may be forthcoming. This method is fol-
lowed in most of the Talmudic discussions on regu-
lations referring to the Law, and in the explanations
of sentences of tlie Mishnah, of which an example
may be given here.

The Mishnah says (B. M. i. 1): "If two persons
together hold a garment in their hands, aind one of
them asserts "I have found it,' and the other like-
wise says ' I have found it, ' and the first one says ' It
belongs entirely to me,' and the second likewise
says ■ It belongs entirely to me,' then each one shall
swear that not less than one-half of the garment is
rightfully his, and they shall divide the garment
between them." The Gemara explains this mishnah
as follows: "The reason for the two expressions,
' the one says "I have found it," ' and ' the one says
"It belongs entirely to me," ' is sought because it is
obvious that, if the person insists that he found it,
he lays claim to its possession." After some futile
attempts to prove by means of quibbling interpre-
tations that one of these sentences alone would have
been insufficient, the Gemara comes to the conclusion
that two different cases are discussed in the Mish-
nah. In the first case a garment has been found,
and each of the two persons insists
An that he has found it; in the second

Example, case a garment has been acquired by
purchase, each person insisting that it
belongs to him, since he has purchased it. Then the
Gemara inquires why decisions had to be rendered
in both cases, and if it would not have been suffi-
cient to give a decision in the one case only, either
that of acquisition by purchase or that of finding.
The Gemara then proves that the two ways of ac-
quisition, by purcha.se and by finding, differ in cer-
tain respects, and that if a decision had been given
for the one case, it could not have been concluded
therefrom that it applied to the other case also.

After this Mishnah sentence itself has been ex-
plained, its relation to other sentences is inquired
into. Does this Mishnah .sentence, according to
which both parties swear, agree with the principle
of Ben Nanos, who says, in a case in which two
parties contradict each other (Shebu. vii. 5), that
both parties sliould not be allowed to swear? It is
then shown that, according to Ben Nanos, too, both
parties might be allowed to take the oath, since both
might swear truthfully; for it might be possible
that the garment in dispute belonged to both of
them together, since both together might have
found or purchased it, each one swearing merely
that not less than one-half belongs to liim. Then it
is sought to ascertain whether the Mishnah contra-
dicts the decision of Symmachus (B. K. 35b ; B. M.

102), according to whom the two parties should di-
vide the object in dispute between them without
swearing. After a few other attempts at a solution,
which are, however, futile, the Gemara comes to the
conclusion that the mishnah in question agrees in
principle with Symmachus, and that the oath which
the Mishnah prescribes for both parties is merely
an institution of the sages; otherwise any one
might take hold of another person's garment and
insist that it belonged to him, in order to obtaij>
possession of at least one-half of it (B. M. 2a-3a).

This example, although presented here in a very
abbreviated form, will suffice to give an idea of the
pilpulistic method of Talmudic discussion. As a
method of studying the Law, there was, even in
the Talmudic period, side by side and in contrast
with it, anotlier method, which consisted rather in
collecting, arranging, and preserving-
Tradition the halakic sentences. The represent-

Versus ative of the last-named method was

PilpuL called " ba'al shemu'ot " = " possessor
of the tradition," while the represent-
ative of the former was called "ba'al pilpul " =
"master of ingenious disputation and deduction"
(B. B. 145b). In Yer. Hor. iii. 48c the one is called
" sadran " (arranger), while the other is termed " pal-
pelan " (disputator).

Both methods were necessary for Talmudism,
which rested, on the one hand, on the solid ground
of tradition, and, on the other, on the independent
development of what had been handed down. The
one method furnished the technical knowledge of
the traditions, while the other furnished the means
of creating by ingenious deductions something new
out of that which existed anil had been transmitted.
The method of arranging and collecting was pre-
ferred to the method of ingenious disputation and
deduction (Yer. Hor. iii. 48c); and the learned man,
called "sinai," was considered to be greater than
the clever pilpulist, who was termed "uprooter of
mountains" (Ber. G4a; Ilor. 14a). Although the pil-
pulist had the advantage of being able to arrive at
new conclu.sions and new doctrines and to render
new decisions in cases Avliich had not been provided
for in the works of tradition, and before which the
student of tradition stood helpless, he had neverthe-
less to contend with certain disadvantages. The
clever person is often careless ('Er. 90a); and the
more acute and hair-splitting Jus arguments are, the
more likely they are to result in false deductions, as
Kaba pointed out (B. M. 96b ; Niddah 33b). Many
of the amoraim were opposed to the method of
the jiiipul, which was cultivated especially at
Pumbedita from the time of R. Judah b. Ezekiel.
Some even went so far as to designate this method,
on which the Babylonian Talmud is based, although
in a more rational and logical form, as "ambiguous
obscurity" (Sanh. 24a; comp. Samuel Edels in his
"Hi(l(hislie Ilaggadot," ad loc).

in the po.st-Talmu(lic period the Geonim and the
first commentators on the Talmud confined them-
selves more to arranging and explaining the text,
some even despising the ingenious method of the
pilpul (comp. Kashi on Hul. 81a and on Sanh. 42a).
But the tosafists again introduced the method of
the pilpul, which then became predominant. Dur-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pilpul

ing the fourteenth century and tlie first decades of

the fifteenth, however, the study of the Talmud was

pursued along different lines, probably

Develop- in consequence of the pitiful condition
ment of the Jews in most countries. It

of Pilpul. became shallow and weak and entirely
lacking in independence. Memo-
rizing and technical knowledge (" beki'ut ") took the
place of minute analysis. A rabbi was considered
great in proportion to his knowledge of the te.xtof
the different codes necessary for practical decisions.
But about the middle of the fifteenth century
new life was infused into the study of the Talmud
by the reintroduction of the pilpulistic method,
which laid greater stress on the clever interpreta-
tion of the text than on the study of its lialakic re-
sults. This method, which, in its hair-splitting dia-
lectics and its detailed analysis as well as in its sur-
prising deductions, surpasses the clever tosafistic
method of teaching, originated in Poland and Ger-
many, and spread thence to other countries. It was
cultivated by the most prominent rabbis; and the
real importance of a rabbi was thought by some to
lie in liis ability to analyze cleverly and treat crit-
ically the subject in question (Israel Bruna, in
Joseph Colon's Responsa, No. 170). Nor does Jo-
seph Cohm deny {ib.) that the method of the pil-
pul is an excellent one, saying merely that the
knowledge of the Talmud and of the codes is more
val liable and more useful for the rabbi.

The pilpulistic method of study soon degenerated
into sophistry. It was no longer regarded as a
means of arriving at the correct sense of a Talmudic
passage and of critically examining a decision as to
its soundness. It was regarded as an end in itself;
and more stress was laid on a display
Tendency of cleverness than on the investigation

Toward of truth. This new development of
Casuistry, the pilpul is ascribed to Jacob Pol-
LAK, who lived at the end of the fif-
teenth century and in the beginning of the sixteenth.
Tills pilpul par excellence was pursued especially
under two forms. In the one, two apparently widely
divergent halakic themes were placed in juxtaposi-
tion, and a logical connection between them was
sought by means of ingeniousand artificial interpreta-
tionsand explanations, but in such a way that the con-
nective thread between them appeared only at the end
of the treatise : this was the " derashali. " In the other
form an apparently homogeneous theme was dis-
sected into several parts, which were then again com-
bined into an artistic whole: this was the so-called
" hilluk " (analysis, dissection). The treatises follow-
ing this method of the pilpul in both of these forms
were called "hiddushim" or "novellie" (original
products) because thereby the most familiar objects
were made to appear in a new light. Various meth-
ods of dialectics were originated by
The means of which these hillukim and

Hillukim. derashot were built up and developed.
Every school had its own way of find-
ing and disclosing the hiddushim; as examples the
method of Nuremberg and that of Ratisbon may be
mentioned.

General rules were laid down even for the applica-
tion of this sophistic treatment to the Talmud, the

codes, and the commentaries. The following rule,
for instance, was formulated : " If any person raises
an objection at the end of a sentence, he must at
once be asked why he reserved his objection until
the end of the argument, instead of speaking at the
beginning of it. Then it must be proved by the ob-
jector that if the objection liad been raised at the
beginning of the sentence a refutation of it might
have been found, and that only if the objection is
raised at the end of the discussion, can it be claimed
that all possible refutations of the main argument
have been removed and that .such an argument be-
comes valid " (comp. on this rule Jellinek in "Bikku-
riin," pp. 3 et seq.).

The adherents of this pilpulistic method did not,
however, intend, by their ingenious disputations, to
draw deductions for practical purposes. Its chief
representatives, in order that they might not
inlluence any one in practical matters, did not
commit the results of their disputations or their
hiddu.shim to writing. They intended merely to
sharpen the minds of their pupils and to lead
them to think independently; for this course prece-
dent was to be found in the Talmud (Ber. 33b; 'Er.
13a). To this end riddles were often given to the
pupils; also questions that were manifestly absurd,
but for which a clever pupil might find an answer.
The earliest collection of such riddles is found in a

work by Jacob b. Judah Landau, who

Riddles of lived at the end of the fifteenth cen-

Pilpul. tury, hence about the time when this

new method of the pilpul was devel-
oped; this collection is appended to his work
"Agur" (ed. Piotrkow, 1884, pp. 72a et seq.). The
following example may be quoted: "How was it
that of two boys who were born on two successive
days of the same year the one who was born a day
later than the other attained first to the legal age of
thirteen years required for becoming a bar miz wah ? "
Answer : " The bo3's were born in a leap-year, which
has two months of Adar. One boy was born on the
29th of the first Adar; the other, on the first of the
second Adar. The thirteenth year following, in
which the boys became bar mizwah, was an ordi-
nary year, with only one month of Adar. The
younger boy, who was born on the 1st of Adar
(Sheni), reached his legal age on the 1st of Adar in
that year, while the elder boy, who was born on the
29th of the first month of Adar, reached his legal age
only on the 29th of Adar in the thirteenth j'ear."

Many prominent rabbinical authorities protested
against this degenerated method of the pilpul (e.g.,
R. Liwa b. Bezaleel, MaHaRaL of Prague, Isaiah
Horowitz [author of "Shene Luhot ha-Berit"J, Jair
Hayj'im Bacharach in his responsa "Hawwot Yair"
[No. 123J, and other Polish and German rabbis;
comp. Jellinek in "Bikkurim," i. 4, ii. 5); but their
attacks upon it were futile. The method predomi-
nated down to the nineteenth century, being culti-
vated by the most gifted rabbis in all countries, al-
though in a more or less modified form, according
to the individuality of the rabbis in question and
the dominant movements in the countries them-
selves. It applies the same treatment to the Talmud
as to the codes and the commentaries, and attempts
to confirm or refute the view expressed in one com-

Pilpul
Pilsen

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

mentary, or the rule laid down in one code, by
means of ingenious and at times hair-splitting de-
ductions drawn from an earlier commentary or code,
or especially a remote Talmudic passage. Two ex-
amples may be cited here:

Maimonides ("Yad," 'Edut, xviii. 2) lays down
the principle that a witness can be convicted of hav-
ing given false testimony and becomes amenable to
punishment by proof of an alibi only when such
proof does not disprove the facts set forth in his tes-
timony. When the testimony of those who bring
proof of the alibi refutes at the same time the testi-
mony of the witness for the prosecution, then this is
regarded merely as a contradiction between the two
groups of witnesses, and the one group is not con-
sidered to be refuted by the other. This principle
is attacked by R. Hayyim Jonah (quoted by U. Jona-
than Eybeschntz in his " Urim we-Tummim," section
"Tummim," 38) through the combination of two Tal-
mudic passages and a clever deduction therefrom.
There is a Talmudic principle to the effect that the
testimony of a witness in which he can not possibly be
refuted by proof of an alibi is in itself invalid (Sanh.
41a ; B. K. 75b). This principle is perhaps based on
the supposition that the witness, if not restrained by
the fear of being convicted and punished, will more
readily make false statements. Another Talmudic
sentence says: ''A appears as witness against B
and testifies that the latter committed an assault
upon him (A) against his will. If another witness,
C, can be found to corroborate this statement, then
B is liable to be executed on the testimony of the
two witnesses A and C" (Sanh. 9b). Now, if the
statement of A should be refuted by a proof of
alibi, then this proof would at the same time dis-
prove the alleged commission of the crime; for, in
the absence of A, B could not have committed the
assault in question upon him. According to the
principle laid down by Maimonides, the refutation
of A's statement by proof of an alibi would be con-
sidered merelj^ as a contradiction and not as a refu-
tation, and A would not be punished as a person
who had been convicted. Hence A would not be
in danger of being refuted and punished, and his
testimony would, according to the principle (Sanh.
41a), be invalid in itself. It therefore necessarily
follows from the Talmudic sentence in question
that the testimony of A is valid, and that the prin-
ciple of Maimonides in regard to the nature of the
proof of alibi is erroneous. Eybcschlitz attempts to
uphold the jirincipleof Maimonides by quoting even
more ingenious combinations.

Another example, by Aryeh Lob b. Asher. one of
the keenest casuists of the eighteenth century, may
be given. He proves the correctness
Examples of one view, and "eo ipso" the in-
of Method, correctness of another, from a Tal-
mudic passage. The Talmud says
(Pes. 4b): "The search for and removal of leav-
ened matter on the eve of the Passover is merely a
rabbinical prescription ; for it is sufficient, according
to the command of the Torah, if merely in words or
in thought the owner declares it to be destroyed and
equal to the dust." Rashi says that the fact that
such a declaration of the owner is sufficient is do-
rived from an expression in Scripture. The tosafot.

however, claim that this can not be derived from the
particular expression in Scripture, since the word
there means "to remove" and not "to declare des-
troyed." The mere declaration that it is destroyed
("bittul ") is sufficient for the reason that thereby
the owner gives up his rights of ownership, and
the leavened matter is regarded as having no owner
(" hefker "), and as food for which no one is responsi-
ble, since at Passover only one's own leavened food
may not be kept, while that of strangers may be
kept. Although the formula which is sufficient
to declare the leavened matter as destroyed is not
sufficient to declare one's property as having no
owner, yet, as R. Nissim Gerondi, adopting the
view of the tosafot, explains, the right of owner-
ship which one has in leavened matter on the eve
of the Passover, even in the forenoon, is a very
slight one; for, beginning with noon, such food may
not be enjoyed ; hence all rights of ownership be-
come illusory, and, in view of such slight right of
ownership, a mere mental renunciation of this right
suffices in order that the leavened matter be consid-
ered as without an owner. R. Aryeh L5b (in his
"Sha'agat Aryeh, Dine Hamez," § 77) attempts to
prove the correctness of this tosafistic opinion as
elaborated by R. Nissim, and to prove at the same
time the incorrectness of Rashi's view, from the fol-
lowing Talmudic passage: "Pes. 6b says that from
the hour of noon of the eve [of Passover] to the con-
clusion of the feast the mere declaration of destruc-
tion does not free a person from the responsibility
of having leavened matter in his house; for since he
is absolutely forbidden to enjoy it, he has no claim
to the ownership, which he renounces by such a
declaration." The Gemara (7a) endeavors to refute
this assertion by the following baraita : " If a person,
sitting in the schoolhouse, remembers that he has
leavened matter in his house, he shall mentally de-
clare it to be destroyed, whether the day is a Sab-
bath or the feast-day." Although the tasting of
leavened matter is forbidden on the feast-day, yet
the baraita says that the owner shall mentally de-
clare it to be destroyed; hence it follows from the
baraita that a declaration of destruction is effective
even at a time when one may not enjoy the leavened
food at all. R. Aha b. Jacob declares thereupon
that the baraita deals with a case in which a person
remembers that he has left some freshly kneaded
dough at home which is not yet leavened, but may
become leavened before the owner

Further returns home in order to bake it. At
Examples, the moment of his remembering it,
liowe ver, the dough is not yet leavened ,
and hence may be used for all purposes; it is there-
fore the property of the owner, who can mentally
declare it to be destroj'ed, i.e., he may renounce his
right of ownership.

Thus far the Talmudic passage. The "Sha'agat
Aryeh" then asks how the Gemara can conclude
from the baraita, which says that during the feast
even leavened matter may be mentally destroyed,
that such a declaration of destruction is valid if one
may not partake at all of such leavened food. This
baraita perhaps agrees with the view of Jose the
G.\i,ii,E.\N, who says that leavened matter may be
enjoyed during the feast in any way excepting by

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pllpul
Pilsen

eating it. If the baraita adopts the point of view of
Jose the Galilean, then it may declare correctly that
leavened matter may be mentally destroyed on the
feast-day also, since the owner may enjoy it in every
way except as food and hence has the right of own-
ership. When, however, the leavened matter may
not be enjoyed, as is the ruling of the accepted hala-
kah, no one has the right of ownership and, there-
fore, of declaring the leavened matter in question des-
troyed. But if one assumes with K. Nissim and the
tosafot that a mental declaration of destruction is ef-
ficacious because it is a form, though a weakened
cue, of the hefker declaration, then this weakened
form of the hefker declaration is sutticient in the
case of leavened matter only because the right of
ownership in it is a weakened one. The right of
ownership in the leavened matter is a weakened one
only because through the interdiction against par-
taking of such food this right becomes of itself illu-
sory from a certain period, namel}', from the hour
of noon of the eve of the feast. If this view is as-
sumed to be correct, then the baraita can not ex-
press the view of Jose the Galilean; for, according
to him, the right of ownership in the leavened mat-
ter is a strong and inalienable one, since one may
fully enjoy it even during the feast, with tlie excep-
tion that one may not use it as food. But if the
right of ownership is not a weakened one, then, ac-
cording to the foregoing statements, a weakened
form of the hefker declaration is not sufficient; hence
the bittul declaration is insufficient for the purpose
of declaring the leavened matter to be property be-
longing to no one. The baraita, which refers to a
mental declaration of destruction, can not therefore
express H. Jose's view.

The attempt of the Gemara to conclude from the
baraita that a bittul declaration would be valid also
in case a person might have noenjoy-
Complica- ment whatever from leavened matter
tions. is therefore a correct one. According
to Rashi's view, however, that the
view of the bittul declaration being sufficient is de-
rived from a certain expression in Scripture, this
bittul declaration is valid according to R. Jose too;
since it does not depend on the kind of riglit of
ownership, the baraita passage quoted might ex-
press the view of R. Jose, although it speaks of
bittul. Hence the attempt of the Gemara to con-
clude from the baraita that bittul would be valid
even if one might not in any way enjoy the leavened
matter, is erroneous; for the baraita, which refers
to bittul during the feast, expresses R. Jose's
view, that during the feast also leavened matter
may be enjoyed in any way except by eating it.
The method of the Gemara, therefore, proves the
correctness of the tosafistic opinion, represented by
R. Nissim, and the incorrectness of Rashi's opinion.

This latter example is especially interesting be-
cause it shows the weak foundation on which such a
pilpulistic structure is reared. It rests on the highly
improbable, if not false, assumption that the Gemara
has carefully weighed and considered all points, and
still can find no other refutation of its attempt to
draw the desired conclusion from the baraita than
that advanced by R. Aha b. Jacob. And the whole
fabric falls to pieces with the assumption that the

Gemara could have refuted its attempt by assuming
that the baraita expressed the view of ]{. Jose, but
that R. Aha b. Jacob thought to find a better refu-
tation by assuming that the baraita expressed the
view generally accepted, and not the single view of
R. Jose, which was rejected by the majoiity of
teachers.

The method of the pilpul was not confined to the
study of the Talmud and the codes; it was applied
also in the field of Homilktics and in that of the
Haggadah. A short haggadic sentence of the Tal-
mud or Midrash was cleverly interpreted so as to af-
ford material for an entire treatise on some halakic
theme. Sometimes such a so-called

Applied " curious midrash sentence " (" midrash
Outside the peli") was invented as a starting-point

Talmud, for some ingenious explanation. The
Biblical personages were made the
mouthpieces of the principles of Maimonides accord-
ing to Joseph Caro's interpretation, or of decisions
by Isaac Alfasi according to R. Nissim Gerondi's
interpretation. Abimelech is said to have been
guided by a Talmudic principle in his behavior to-
ward Abraham and Sarah. The antagonism between
Joseph and his brothers is ascribed to differences of
opinion regarding a halakic regulation. Pharaoh is
said to have based his refusal to liberate Israel on
certain Talmudic-rabbinic principles; and Haman's
wife, Zeresh, is said to have deduced from certain
Talmudic teachings that her husband would not
be able to maintain his position against the Jew
Mordecai.

Many homiletic works and commentaries on the
books of the Bible, from the beginning of the six-
teenth century down to the nineteenth, follow
this method. Among these R. Judah Rosanes'
"Parashat Derakim" and R. Jonathan EybeschiUz's
" Ya'arat Debash " are especially noteworthy for
their acuteness and their clever combinations. On
the special forms of pilpulistic methods in different
countries and at different times, see Talmud.

Bibliography: Gudemann. Die Neuoei>taUuna des Rahbi-
nerwei^eivf im Mittelalter. In Monntsxchrift, 1864. pp. 425-
433; Idem, Gesch. Hi. 79-83 ; Jelllnek, Le-Korot Seder ha-
Limmtui, In Keller's Bikkuiim, 1. 1-26, 11. 1-19.
E. C. J. Z. L.

PILSEN : City in Bohemia. According to doc-
uments of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
Jews were then living in Pilsen, and they had a syn-
agogue and a cemetery. In the sixteenth century
they were expelled, as were the Jews of most of the
other cities of Bohemia. It was not until after 1848
that Jews were allowed to resettle in Pilsen. An
increasing number of Jewish families from several
villages in the neighborhood, where they formed
large communities, then removed to the city ; serv-
ices were at first held in a rented chapel ; and soon
afterward the district rabbi of Pilsen, Anschel Kaf-
ka, took up his residence in the city. In 1859 the
community, which then numbered seventy families,
received its constitution, being one of the few newlj'
formed congregations in Bohemia whose statutes
were confirmed. In the same year a synagogue was
dedicated, and a four-grade school was organized.
In 1875 another .synagogue was annexed to the
older one ; and in 1893 a handsome new building was
erected at a cost of nearly 1,000, 000 crowns. Heine-

Pimentel
Piuea

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

mann Vogelstein was called to the rabbinate in 1867,
afid oflQciated until 1880, his successors being Nathan
Porges (1880-82), Jecheskel Caro (1882-91), and
Adolf Posnanski (since 1891).

In 1904 the community numbered 3,170 persons,
including 724 taxpayers, in a total population of
68,079; and the annual budget amounted to 73,756
crowns.

BiBUOGRAPHT : JohrbucJi fUr die Israflitischen Oemeinden
in BOhmen, 18&4 ; Union Kcdender, 1905.
D. A. Kl.

PIMENTEL, SABA DE FONSECA PINA

T: Poetess of Spanish descent; lived in England
in the early part of the eighteenth century, as did also
Abraham Henriques Pimentel. She wrote " Es-
pejoFielde Vidas" (London, 1720), laudator}' Span-
ish verses on the Spanish metrical translation of the
Psalms by the Marano poet Daniel Israel Lopez
Laguna.

BiBLioGRAPHT : Kayserlin?. Sephardim Romanische Poesien
der Juden in Spanien, pp. 251, 299.

J. I. Co.

PIN. See Tent.

PINA, DE : Portuguese jVIarano family some
members of which were able to escape the Inquisi-
tion and to confess Judaism openlj' in Amsterdam.

Jacob (Manuel) de Pina : Spanish and Portu-
guese poet; born of Marano parents in Lisbon in
1616; went to Holland about 1660. In Amsterdam
he openly accepted Judaism and took the name
Jacob. In Lisbon he had published a "comedia
burlesca " entitled " La Mayor Hazana de Carlos
VI." and a volume of humorous poems entitled
"Juguetes de la Niiiez y Travesuras del Ingeuio"
(1656), which are the same as the " Chansas del lu-
genio y Dislatas de la Musa " mentioned in Wolf (see
bibliography below). Jacob mourned in elegies the
deaths of Saul Levi Morteira and the martyrs Bernal
and Lope de Vera; and in 1673 he celebrated in a
Portuguese poem the verses of Joseph Penso, and
in a Spanish one the translation of the psalms of Ja-
cob Judah Leon.

Bibliography : Barrios, Relacion de Ids Poetas, p. 54 ; idem,
Coro de las Mxtsan, p. .505; Idem, Goviei-no Popular Ju-
dayco, p. 45; Barbosa Machado, Bihliotheca Litsitana, 111.
341 ; Wolf. Bibl. Hehr. 111. .521, Iv. 870; Kayserllng, Sephar-
dim, pp. 253 et seq.; idem, Bi?jl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 89.

8. M. K.

Paul de Pina : Born after 1580 in Lisbon. Poet-
ically gifted and inclined to religious fanaticism, he
was about to become a monk, and for this purpose
made a journey to Rome. One of his relatives rec-
ommended him to the physician Filotheo Eliau (Eli-
jah) MoxTALTO in Leghorn, and the latter won the
young man for the religion of his ancestors. Paul
went to Brazil, and thence returned to Lisbon, where
ne still continued to appear as a Christian. He did
not fully embrace Judaism until after the Franciscan
monk Diego de la Axum(;ao had courageously suf-
fered the death of a martyr for the Jewish faith. In
1604 Paul hastened to Amsterdam, where as a Jew he
was called Bohel Jeahurunand became prominent
in the community. In honor of the synagogue Bet-
Ya'akob he in 1624 composed in Portuguese poet-
ical dialogues between the seven principal moun-
tains of Palestine in praise of the faith of Israel.

These dialogues were printed in Amsterdam in 1767,
and they are reprinted in Kayserling, "Sephardim,"
p. 340.

Bibliography : Grfttz, Geach. 3d ed., ix.484, x. 4 ; Kayserllng,
Sephardim, p. 175.
G. I. E.

PINCZOW, ELIEZER B. JUDAH: Polish
rabbi; flourished at the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury ; grandson of R. Zebi Hirsch, rabbi of Lublin.
He was rabbi of Pinczow and other places, and
parnas at Cracow. Pinczow was the author of
"Dammeselj: Eli'ezer" (Jesnitz, 1723), notes on the
Masoretic text of the Bible, and "Mishnat Rabbi
Eli'ezer" (Amsterdam, 1725), expositions of Tal-
mudic haggadot.

Bibliography: Fuenn. Keneset Yi^Tachp. 131, Warsaw, 1886;
Furst, Bibl. Jud. 1. 2:i3; Roest, Cat. lioseuthal. Bibl. 1. 347,
11. Supplement, No. 396; Stelnschnelder, Cat. Bodl. No. 4993.
n. n. A. S. W.

PINCZOW, ELIJAH B. MOSES GEB-
SHON : Polish physician and Talmudist of the
eighteenth century. He was the author of : " Meleket
Mahashebet," parti., "Ir Heshbon " (Frankfort-on-
the-Main, 1765), on arithmetic and algebra; part ii.,
"Berure ha-Middot " (Berlin, 1765), on geometry;
"Ma'aneh Eliyahu " (Zolkiev, 1758), discussions on
the Talmudic treatises Bezah and Baba Mezi'a, to-
gether with some rabbinical decisions and responsa;
"Nibhar me-Haruz " (1772), extracts from the book
"Ha-'Ikkarim," reproduced in an easy style and in
the form of a dialogue between teacher and pujiil;
"Hadrat Eliyahu "(parti., Prague, 1786), homiletics;
"She'elot u-Teshubot Ge'one Batra'e " (Sudilkov,
1795), collected from the responsa of the later rabbis.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 118, Warsaw, 1886 ;
Furst, Bihl. Jnd. i. 237 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 134,
330, Wilna, 1880.
H. R. A. S. W.

PINCZOW, JOSEPH B. JACOB : Polish rabbi
and author; flourished in Poland in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries; descendant of R. Jacob
Pollak, son-in-law of R. Moses Krjimer, chief rabbi
of Wilna, and pupil of Zebi Hirsch, rabbi of Lublin.
Pinczow was at first head of a yeshibah at Wilna;
he then became rabbi of Kosovi (1688), and afterward
of Seltz3^ where he maintained a yeshibah. On ac-
count of persecutions he in 1698 fled to Hamburg,
where he remained till 1702, returning then to Seltzy.
Here the plague broke out in 1706; and Pinczow,
whose life had often been threatened on account of
accusations made against the Jews, fled to Berlin.
In this city he printed his book " Rosh Yosef " (1717),
on Talmudic halakot and haggadot, and arranged
according to the order of the treatises. The rabbis
who wrote the haskamot for this work, among whom
was R. Jeliiel Michael of Berlin, praise efiusively
Joseph's learning and piety.

One of Pinczow 's sons, Moses, was rabbi of
Copenhagen.

Bibliography : Fuenn, Keneset, YinraeJ. p. 493, Warsaw, 1886;
idem. Kirmh Ne"t'ma7mh. p. 96, Wllna, im); F'iirst, BUiL
Jnd. II. 114; Walden, Shem ha-Gcdolim he-Hadash, 1. 55,
Warsaw, 1882.
H. n. A. S. W.

PINE (PNIE), SAMSON : German translator
of the fourteenth century. He was probably born
at Peine, a city in the province of Hanover, whence

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pimentel
Pines

his name is derived and where a Jewish community
had existed from very early times. Later he lived
at Strasburg. Fine is chiefly remembered for the
assistance he rendered iu 1336 to two German poets,
Claus Wysse and Philipp Kolin of Strasburg, who
prepared a continuation of Wolfram vou Eschen-
bach's Middle High German poem "Parzival," after
the French poem in the liuediger von Mauesse man-
uscript. In the parchment manuscript on which
they wrote, these poets thank Pine for liis services in
translating the poem into German and in inventing
rimes for it. Incidentally, Pine is thanked as a Jew
by faith; the note is couched in metrical terms;
and Pine is referred to twice in ten lines as a Jew.

Bibliography: Gudeinann, Gesch. lii. 159 et seq.i Karpeles,
Uesch. ilerjildischen Literatur. p. 7()9, Berlin, 1886; idem,
Jewish Literature, pp. 35, 87, Philadelphia, 189.5.
D. A. M. F.

PINELES, HIRSCH MENDEL: Austrian
scholar; born at Tysmenitz, Galiciu, Dec. 21, 1805;
died at Galatz, Rumania, Aug. 6, 1870. After hav-
ing studied Talmud and rabbinics in his native
town, Pineles at the age of fifteen removed to Brody,
where he married. In his new home he began to
study German and the secular sciences, particularly
astronomy. As most of the Jews of Brody at that time
were of the Hasidic type, Pineles was, on account
of his scientific studies, accused of heresy, and was
obliged to justify liimself before his fatherin-law.
About 1853 Pineles went to Odessa, where he lived
till the Crimean war (1855), and then hesettled perma-
nently at Galatz.

Pineles wrote articles on various scientific sub-
jects, particularly on astronomy and calendar-ma-
king, in most of the Hebrew periodicals, and carried
on in "Kerem Hemed " (vol. ix., letters 4, 5, 16, 17,
18) and in " Ha-Maggid " a polemical correspondence
on astronomical subjects with Hayyim Selig Slo-
nimski. He acquired particular renown on account
of his work "Darkah shel Torah " (Vienna, 1861),
a critical interpretation, divided into 178 paragraphs,
of several passages of the Talmud, particularly of
the Mishnah, followed by a treatise on calendar-
making, including tables. Pineles says in the
preface that the objects of the book are: (1) to jus-
tify tiie oral law; (2) to defend the Mishnah against
both its admirers and its detractors; and (3) to ex-
plain several sayings of the earlier amoraim as well
as difficult passages in the Jerusalem Talmud and
some in Babli. The most noteworthy feature of this
work is its defense of the Mishnah. Pineles explains
several mishnayot differently fi-om the Amoraim,
who, as he declares, " very often distorted the Mish-
nah." It is true that Rapoport, Hirsch Chajes,
Nachman Krochmal, and other critics had similarly
differed from the Amoraim ; but besides extending
his criticism to the whole Mishnah, his predeces-
sors having dealt with only a small portion of it,
he also deviated from the amoraic interpretation
even where it concerned the Halakali. This and
his interpretation of the sayings of the earlier amo-
raim, which differed from that of the later amoraim,
called forth protests from some of his contempora-
ries. Waldberg, a Rumanian sciiolar, published a
polemical work entitled "Kakh Hi Darkah slid
Torah" (Jassy, 1864-68), in refutation of Pineles'

criticisms. It is evident, however, that Pineles did
not act in an autireligious spirit; for, as stated
above, he defended the Mishnah against its detract-
ors like Schorr and Geiger, attacking the latter'a
"Urschrift und Uebersetzung der Bibel " (^i^ 144-
167), to which Geiger replied in his " jQd. Zeit." (v.
146 et 8eq.).

Bibliography: Fuenn, Keneset YinrarU pp. 286 et seq.; Zelt-
lin, BilA. Post-MeiuhUi. pp. 288, 367, 402.
S. M. Sel.

PINERO (PINHEIROS), ARTHTIR WING :

English dramatist; born in London May 24, 1855;
eldest son of John Daniel Pinero. He is descended
from a Sephardic family. As a boy Pinero was
articled to a firm of solicitors; and while in their
ofiice he absorbed much of that knowledge of human
nature and human emotions which has made his
productions famou.s.

The law, however, had few attractions for him,
and in 1874 he joined the company of the Theatre
Royal, Edinburgh, being engaged as "general util-
ity man." Two years later he went to the Lyceum,
London, where he gained invaluable experience in
stageciaft under (Sir) Henry Irving. As an actor
Pinero was not successful, and he soon turned his
thoughts to play-writing. In 1877 he wrote in a sin-
gle afternoon "Two Hundred a Year," which was
produced at the Globe Theatre with some measure
of success. Soon afterward " The Money Spinners,"
written with almost equal rapidity, was produced at
the St. James's by John Hare and the Kendalls and
made a great hit (1880). He then produced in ten
days " Lords and Commons, " following it with " The
Magistrate," which made Pinero famous and estab-
lished his reputation on a firm foundation.

His literary activity has been remarkable and un-
flagging; and "The Schoolmistress," "The Squire,"
"Dandy Dick" (written in three weeks), "The
Rocket," and "The Hobby Horse" appeared succes-
sively at short intervals. Then came his first real
success, "Sweet Lavender," a play redolent with
pathos and sweetness. Subsequently the influence
of Ibsen began to make itself felt in Pinero's work,
after he had written " The Profligate," " The Weaker
Sex," "The Cabinet Minister," "The Times,"
"The Amazons," and "Lady Bountiful." "The
Second Mrs. Tanqueray" was distinctly in Ibsen's
manner ; it was succeeded by " The Notorious Mrs.
Ebbsmith," followed, in the same style, by "The
Benefit of the Doubt" aud "The Princess and the
Butterfly."

In 1898 Pinero, reverting to his earlier models,

produced "Trelawny of the Wells." He returned

to the problem play in "The Gay Lord Quex "

(1899), followed by " Iris " (1901) and " Letty " (1903).

of the same class.

Bibliography: Thr Critic. xxxyiLUT: CasxcU's Magnzine,
x.wiii. 3.54 ; Pall Mall Mauaziue, July, 1900, p. 331 ; H'/io"*
ir/io, 1904. „ ,,

J. E. Ms.

PINES, ELIJAH B. AARON: Rabbi at
Shklov, government of Moghilef, Russia, in the
eighteenth century ; descendant of the families of
Jacob Polak and Jiulah L5b Puchowitzer. He was
the author of " Tanna debe Eliyahu " (Zolkiev, 1753),
on religion and ethics, divided into seven parts ac-

Pines
Pinner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

cording to the seven days of the week, with an ap-
pendix containing discussions on Berakot, extracted
from his unpublished book, "Tosafot Me'ore ha-
Gole."

Bibliography: Fuenn. Keneset TiJtrael. p. 118; Benjacob,
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 657 ; Kalian, Atiaf 'Ez Ahot, p. xix.,
tlHicow. 190^. A S W

H. R. A. b. W.

PINES, JEHIEL MICHAEL: Russian Tal-
mudist and Hebraist; burn at liozhany, govern-
ment of Grodno, Sept. 26, 1842. He was the son of
Noah Pines and the son-in-law of Shemariah Luria,
rabbi of Moghilef. After being educated in the local
Hebrew school and in theyeshibah, where he distin-
guished himself in Talmudic study, he became a
merchant, giving lectures at the same time in the
yeshibah of his native town. He was elected dele-
gate to a conference held in London by the associa-
tion Mazkereth Mosheh, for the establishment of
charitable institutions in Palestine in commemora-
tion of the name of Sir Moses Montefiore ; in 1878
he was sent to Jerusalem to establish and organize
such institutions. He has lived since then in Pales-
tine, working for the welfare of the Jewish commu-
nity and interesting himself in the organization of
Jewish colonies in Palestine. He was excommuni-
cated by the Palestinian rabbis for interfering in
communal affairs, but was sustained by the Euro-
pean rabbinates. He is now (1905) director of the
Ashkenazic hospital at Jerusalem and lecturer at
several of the yeshibot. He has written: "Yalde
Ruhi"(part i., "Rib 'Ammi," Mayence, 1872, on the
position of Israel among the nations; part ii., "Ha-
Hayim weha-Yahadut," ib., 1873. on the relation of
Judaism to the times); "Torat Mishpete Togarraa"
(in collaboration with his son-in-law David Yellin;
Jerusalem, 1887); " 'Abodat ha-Adamah," on agri-
culture in Palestine (Warsaw, 1891). He was one of
the founders of the Orthodox biweekly journal
"Ha-Lebanon" (1864), has edited and annotated
Shershevsky's "'01am Katan," on anatomy and
chemistry (Jerusalem, 1886), and has contributed
to numerous journals and magazines published in
Hebrew.

BiBLiOORAPHr: Elsenstadt, Dor Rabbanaw we-Soferaw, Hi.
a5. Wllna, 1901 : Zeltlin, Bibl. PoHt.-yiendels. p. 267, I^lpsic,
1891-ft5 ; Llppe, Amf ha-Mazkir, I. 367, Vienna, 1881 ; Ha-
Zefirah. 1880, No. 34.
H. R. A. S. W.

PINHAS, JACOB: German journalist and com-
munal worker; born Aug., 1788; died in Cassel Dec.
8. 1861. He was the son of Salomon (1757-1837), a
miniature-painter who had received special privi-
leges exempting him from some of the Jewish dis-
abilities (comp. "Sulamith," viii. 406), and had been
granted the title of court painter to the Elector of
Hesse-Cassel. Jacob Pinhas prepared to follow his
father's calling; but the events of tlie Napoleonic
era caused him to abandon the vocation of an artist
for that of a journalist. When Cassel became the
seat of the kingdom of Westphalia, the "Moniteur,"
its official organ, was published there, and Pinhas,
being conversant witli both German and French,
was appointed a member of its editorial staff. After
the battle of Waterloo he obtained from tiie elector
license to publish the "Kassel'sche Allgemeine Zei-
lung, " which he continued to edit till his death. He

advocated a constitutional form of government, and
although this was considered revolutionary, hia
moderation and his honesty gained for him the con-
fidence of the government, which always sought his
advice on Jewish matters. For his literary merits
the University of Marburg in 1817 bestowed on him
the degree of Ph.D.

When, in 1821, the Jewish congregations of Hesse-
Cassel received a new organization, being divided
into four territories, P*inhas was appointed head of
the " Vorsteheramt" of Niederhessen. As such he
was instrumental in drawing up the law of Dec.
23, 1823, on the organization of the Jews, and in
establishing the normal school of Cassel. When,
later on, the " Landesrabbinat " was organized,
Pinhas was made its "secular member." He was
iustriimental also in the drafting of the law of Oct.
31, 1833, which gave full citizenship to such Jews as
were willing to abandon petty trading. This law
was the first of its kind in Germany ; but it remained
to a great extent a dead letter owing to the reaction-
ary policy of the government authorities.

The year 1848 brought upon Pinhas all the unpopu-
larity which was the lot of those known to be sympa-
thizers with the government, even when, like Pinhas,
they had always defended moderately liberal prin-
ciples. During the period of reaction following the
abrogation of the constitution in 1852, even Pinhas'
enemies acknowledged the far-sightedness of the
man whom they had bitterly opposed ; and it was
due to his influence that the reaction did not go as
far as had been demanded.

Of Pinhas' literary works, two volumes of the
"Archives Diplomatiques Geuerales des Annees
1848 ct Suivantes " (Gottingen, 1854-55), which he
published conjointly with Carl Murhard, deserve
mention.

Bibliography : Allq. Zeit. des Jud. 1862, No. 2.

PINHEIRO, MOSES : One of the most influ-
ential pupils and followers of Shabbethai Zebi ; lived
at Leghorn in the seventeenth century. He was
held in high esteem on account of his acquirements;
and, as the brother-in-law of Joseph Ergas, the well-
known anti-Shabbethaian, he had great influence
over the Jews of Leghorn, urging them to believe
in Shabbethai. Even later (1667), when Shabbcthai's
apostasy was rumored, Pinheiro, in common with
other adherents of the false Messiah, still clung to
him tlirough fear of being ridiculed as his dupes.
Pinheiro was the teacher of Abraham Michael Car-
doso, whom he initiated into the Cabala and into the
mysteries of Shabbethaianism.

Bibliography : Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., x. 190. 204, 225. 229. 312.
J. M. Sel.

PINKES (Dp3D. from viva^="& board," "a
writiiig-tiil)let ") : Term generally denoting the regis-
ter of any Jewish community, in which the proceed-
ings of and events relating to the community are
recorded. The word originally denoted a writing-
tablet, of which, according to the Mislinah (Kelim
xxiv. 7), there were three kinds: (1) a tablet covered
with dust, used chiefly for marking thereon arith-
metical calculations, and large enough to serve as a
seat ; (2) one covered with a layer of wax, the wri-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pines
Pinnei

ting upon •which was executed with a stylet; and
(3) a smooth tablet written upon with ink. Later
the term was applied to a book composed of such
tablets (comp. Shab. xii. 4-5), and afterward to any
book. The term "pinkes" as denoting a register
occurs in the Mishnah : " The pinkes is open, and the
hand writes" (Ab. iii. 16). See Council op Four
Lands; Takkanah.
E. c. M. Sel.

PINKHOF, HERMAN: Dutch physician;
born at Rotterdam May 10, 1863; educated at the
University of Leyden (M.D. 1886). He established
himself as a physician in Amsterdam. Since 1893
he has been collaborator on the " Nederlandsch Tijd-
schrift van Geueeskunde," for medical ethics and
professional interests. In 1895 he founded the Soci-
ety for the Promotion of the Interests of Judaism in
Holland, and since 1898 he has been president of the
society formed for the purpose of combating the
Neo-Malthusian principles, of which he is one of the
most vigorous opponents. He has written many
articles on this subject.

In 1890 he publislied "Abraliam Kashlari: over
Pestachtige Koortsen(Werkeu van het Genootschap
voor Natuur Genees en Heelkunde)."

Pinkliof is a member of the curatorium of Dr.
DQnner's Theological Seminary of Amsterdam.

s. E. Sl.

PINNE : City in the province of Posen, Ger-
many. Jews are first mentioned there in 1553, in
connection with a " privilegium " issued by the lord
of the manor restricting them in the purchase of
leather. In 1624 Juspa Pinner, and from 1631 to
1652 his son in-law Leiser Pinner, are mentioned as
holding various honorary offices in Posen. The
community of Pinne, owing to the practise of the
Polish kings and nobles of endowing churches with
sums exacted from the Jews, became heavily in-
debted to Catholic churches and hospitals. A di-
vorce case in Pinne in 1764 created a sensation.
After the decree had been granted, the man con-
cerned asserted that he had not been the woman's
husband, but was another person from Przemysl.
This statement led to lengthy discussions, which are
given in two contemporarj' collections of responsa,
the controversy continuing until two authorities
finally declared the divorce to be illegal. The Jew-
ish tailors of Pinne originally belonged to the Chris-
tian tailors' gild, which had received its charter
from the lord of the manor; but subsequently they
formed a gild of their own, which still existed in
1850.

A " privilegium " was given to the community by
the lord of the manor under date of June 10, 1789;
but the document refers to rights which had been
granted before that time. Its thirty-four articles
may be summarized as follows: The rabbi, hazzan,
teachers, and the cemetery are exempt from taxation
by the lord; there shall be unrestricted riglits of
trade ; butchers may sell only in the Jews' .street, and
shall pay two stone of tallow to the castle; admis-
sion of foreign Jews may be granted only by the
elders of the community, who shall be elected annu-
ally at the Passover ; the rabbi shall officiate as lower
judge, while the lord of the manor shall be the su-

perior judge; if one party to a case is a Christian,
the elders of the Jews shall act as lower judges;
criminal cases may be brought only before the court
of the castle; Jews may not acquire real estate out-
side of the glietto; a tax of 600 gulden a year shall
be paid to the castle; Jews may not leave their
houses during Catholic processions ; assaults on Jews
by Christians shall be severely punished.

When the city came under Prussian rule in 1793
it contained 39 Jewish houses in a total of 129, and
219 Jews in a population of 789. There were 86
Jewish families in the town in 1795; more than 350
Jews in 1827; 847 in 1857; 672 in 1871; and 376 in
1895. The reader's prayer-book contains a prayer for
Napoleon I. dating from the time when Pinne be-
longed to the duchy of Warsaw (1807-15).

Since the second half of the eighteenth century
the following rabbis have officiated:

Isaac b. Moses ; Solomon b. Isaac ; Napbtali b.
Aaron; Mordecai b. Michael Moses (d. 182;j or 1824);
Dob Bar b. Schragrera Philippsthal (until 18^2), auttior
of "Nahale Debash "' ; Isaac b. Jacob Lewy (until 1834);
Aryeh liubush Landsbergr (WM 39): Joseph Hayyim
Caro ; Jacob Mattithiah Munk (ia')2-5.5), author of
•"Et Sefod"; Oberdorfer (18.')7-6:i); Abraham Isaiah
Caro (1864-88), author of an extract in Mecklenburg's " Ha-Ke-
tab weha-Kabbalah " ; Solomon Goldschmidt (1889-90),
author of "Gesch. der Juden ia England": Moses Schle-
singrer (1890-96), author of "Das Aramaische Verbuin iin Je-
rusaleniischen Talmud," and editor of Aaron ha-Kohen of
Lunel's "Orhot Hayyim"; and Louis Liewin (since 1897),
author of " R. Simon b. Jochai," " Gesch. der Juden in Inow-
razlaw." " Juden verfolgungen im Zweiten Schwedisch-Pol-
nlschen Kriege," and "Gesch. der Juden in Llssa."

The community has produced a number of Jewish
scholars, among whom may be mentioned Gustav
Gottheil and E. M. Pinner.

Bibliography: Louis Lewln. Axis der Verganaetiheit der
JUdi^chen Gemeinde zu Pinne, Pinne. 19118 ; manuscripts
in the archives of the Jewish congregation of Posen.
u. L. Lew.

PINNER, ADOLF: German chemist; born at
Wronke, Posen, Germany, Aug. 31, 1842; educated
at the Jewish Theological Seminary at Breslau and
at the University of Berlin (Doctor of Chemistry,
1867). In 1871 he became privat-docent at the Uni-
versity of Berlin. In 1873 he became assistant pro-
fessor of chemistry at the University of Berlin, and in
1874 professor of chemistry at the veterinary college
of that city. In 1884 he was appointed a member
of the German patent office, and in the following
year, of the technical division of the Prussian De-
partment of Commerce. He has received the title
"Geheimer Regierungsrath."

Pinner has contributed many essays to the profes-
sional journals, among which maj' be mentioned:
" Darstellungund Untersuchungdes Butylchlorals,"
in "Annalen der Chemie," clxxix., and in "Berichte
der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft." 1870-77;
"Ueber Iniidottther. " in "Annalen," ccxcvii. and
ccxcviii., also in "Berichte," 1877-97 (which essays
he combined in book form under the title "Ueber
Imidoather und Dessen Derivate"); "Die Conden-
sation des Acetous," in "Berichte," 1881-83; "Ueber
Ilvdantoie tmd Urazine," in "Berichte," 1887-89;
"Ueber Nicotin," in "Berichte," 1891-95, and in
"Archiv der Pharmazie," ccxxxi,, ccxxxiii. ;
"Ueber Pilocarpin," in "Berichte," 1900-3.

He is also the author of "Gesetze der Naturer-

Pinner
Pinsk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

scheinungen " and of " Repetitorium der Chemie."
in two volumes, on organic and inorganic cbemis-
try respectively (Utli ed., Berlin, 1902). The latter
work is well known to all German students of
chemistry, and it has been translated into English,
Russian, and Japanese.

e. F. T. H.

PINNER. EPHRAIM MOSES B. ALEX-
ANDER StJSSKIND : German Talmudist and
archeologist ; born in Piuue about 1800 ; died in Berlin
1880. His first work, bearing the pretentious title
of "Kizzur Talmud Yerushalmi we-Talmud Babli"
= "Compendium of the Jerusalem Talmud and of
the Babylonian Talmud" (Berlin, 1881), contained
specimens of translation of both Talmuds and an at-
tempted biography of the tanna Simeon b. Yohai.
It was published as the forerunner of his proposed
translation of the Talmud ; and his travels through
Germany, France, England, Italy, Turkey, and Rus-
sia were probably undertaken for the purpose of
furthering that plan. Pinner went from Constanti-
nople to St. Petersburg in 1837, and secured the per-
mission of Emperor Nicholas I. to dedicate the trans-
lation to him. It was to have been completed in
twenty-eight folio volumes; but only one appeared,
the tractate Berakot, which was published five years
later (Berlin, 1842). This is a splendidly printed
book, dedicated to the emperor, who also heads the
list of subscribers. The latter includes the names
of the kings of Prussia, Holland, Belgium, and Den-
mark, and of about twenty-five dukes, princes, arch-
bishops, and bishops. The volume contains appro-
bations from several rabbis, none of whom lived in
Russia, in wliich country only representatives of
Haskal.\h, like Abraham Stern, Isaac Baer Levin-
sohn, Jacob Tugendhold of Warsaw, and Abraham
b. Joseph Sack of Wilna, favored the undertaking.
Their approval was given in signed eulogies, which
follow the approbations of the non-Russian rabbis.

Three years after the appearance of the tractate
Berakot, Pinner, who had apparently remained in
Russia in the hope of being able to continue the
publication of the translation, gave to the world his
famous " Prospectus der Odessaer Gesellschaft f iir
Geschichte und Altherthum GehOrenden Aeltes-
ten Hebraischen und Rabbinischen Manuscripte"
(Odessa, 1845), -which for the first time brought to
the attention of the world the archeological dis-
coveries (mostly spurious) of Abraham Fikkovicii.
The publication of facsimiles, on which Simhah
Pinsker and other investigators founded their the-
ories on "nikkud" (punctuation), was, according to
GeigerC'Wiss. Zeit. jQd. Theol." vi. 109), Pinner's
only service to science. His own investigations, like
his translations, were considered by competent crit-
ics to be of no value.

Other works of Pinner were : " Was Haben die
Israeliten in Sachsen zu Hoffen und Was 1st Ihnen
zu AVilnschenV" Leipsic, IS'6'S; "OlTenes Send-
schreiben an die Nationen Europa's und an die Stande
Norwegens," Berlin, 1848; " Denkschrift an die
Juden Preussens, Besonders f(ir die Juden Berlins,"
ib. 1856, on the political and religious condition of
the Jews; " Kol Kore, Aufruf an die Orthodo.xen
Rabbinen Europa's und die Nothwendigkeit einer
Streng Orthodoxen, Allgemeinen Rabbiner-Ver-

sammlung Dargestellt," ib. 1858. He is, besides, sup-
posed to be the author of an incomplete catalogue
of Hebrew books and manuscripts (see Roest, "Cat.
Rosenthal. Bibl." s.v.).

BrBLior.R.^PHV : Alio- Zeit. des Jud. vol. 1., No. 1; Bischoff,
Kritische Gcsiliiclitc der Talmnd-Uebersetzuuoen, p. 68,
Frankfort-on-the-Main, lt<99 ; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 103; Ke-
rem Hcmal. il. 174, 194; Orient, Lit. 1»47, Nos. 1-2; Mc-
Cllntock and Strong, Cyc. xii. 77(5; Steinschnetder. Cat. Bodl,
S.V.; Zeitlin, Bibl. Pust-Mendels. pp. 2C8-2(i9.

6. P. Wl.

PINSK : Russian city in the government of
Minsk, Russia. There were Jews in Pinsk prior to
the sixteenth century, and there may have been an or-
ganized community there at the time of the expul-
sion of the Jews from Lithuania in 1495; but the
first mention of the Jewish community there in Rus-
sian-Lithuanian documents dates back to 1506. On
Aug. 9 of that year the owner of Pinsk, Prince Feo-
dor Ivanovich Yaroslavich, in his own name and in
that of his wife. Princess Yelena, granted to the Jew-
ish community of Pinsk, at the request of Yesko Mey-
erovich, Pesakh Yesofovich, and Abram Ryzhkevich,
and of other Jews of Pinsk, two par-
Early eels of land for a house of prayer and

Jewish a cemetery, and confirmed all the

Settlers, rights and privileges given to the
Jews of Lithuania bylving Alexander
Jagellou. This grant to the Jews of Pinsk was con-
firmed by Queen Bona on Aug. 18, 1533. From 1506
until the end of the sixteenth century the Jews are
frequently mentioned in various documents. In
1514 they were included in the confirmation of privi-
leges granted to the Jews of Lithuania by King
Sigismund, whereby they were freed from special
military duties and taxes and placed on an equality,
in these respects, with the other inhabitants of the
land, while they were also exempted from direct
military service. They were included among the
Jewish communities of Lithuania upon which a tax
of 1,000 kop groschen was imposed by the king in
1529, the entire sum to-be subject to a pro rata con-
tribution determined upon by the communities.
From other documents it is evident that members of
the local Jewish community were prominent as tra-
ders in the market-place, also as landowners, lease-
holders, and farmers of taxes. In a document of
March 27, 1522, reference is made to the fact that
Lezer Markovich and Avram Volchkovich owned
stores in the market-place near the castle. In an-
other document, dated 1533, Avram Markovich was
awarded by the city court the possession of the estate
of Boyar Fedka Volodkevich, who had mortgaged it
to Avram's father, Mark Yeskovicli. Still other
documents show that in 1540 Aaron llich Khoroshenki
of Grodno inherited some property in Pinsk, and
that in 1542 Queen Bona confirmed the Jews Kher-
son and Nahum Abramovich in the possession of the
estate, in the village of Krainovichi, waywode.sliip
of Pinsk, wliich tiiey hud inherited from their father,
Abram Ryzhkevich.

Abram Ryzhkevich was a prominent member of
the .Jewish community at the beginning of the six-
teenth century, and was active in communal work.
He was a favorite of Prince Feodor Yaroslavich, who
presented him with the estate in question with all
its dependencies and serfs. The last-named were

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pinner
Pinsk

relieved from the payment of any crown taxes, and
were to serve Abram Ryzhkevicli exclusively. He
and his children were regarded us boyars, and shared
the privileges and duties of that class.

Pesakh Yesofovich, mentioned with Yesko Meyer-
ovich and Abram Ryzhkevicli in the grant to the
Jewish community of 1506, took an important part
in local alTairs. Like Abram Ryzhkevicli, he was in-
timate with Prince Feodor Yarosla-
Pesakh Ye- vich, was presented by the prince with
sofovich. a mansion in the town of Pinsk, and
was exempted at the same time from
the payment of any taxes or the rendering of local
services, with the exception of participation in the
repairing of the city walls. The possession of this
mansion was confirmed by Queen Bona to Pesakh 's
son Nahum in 1550, he having purchased it from
Bentz Misevich, to whom the property was sold
by Nahum's father. Inheriting their father's in-
fluence, Nullum and his brother Israel played im-
portant roles as merchants and leaseholders. Thus
on June 23, 1550, they, together with Goshka Mosh-
kevicli, were awarded by Queen Bona the lease of
the customs and inns of Pinsk, Kletzk, and Goro-
detzk for a term of three years, and had the lease
renewed in 1553 for a further term of three years,
on payment of 875 kop groschen and of 25 stones of
wax. In the same year these leaseholders are men-
tioned in a characteristic lawsuit. There was an
old custom, known as "kanuny," on the strength of
which the archbishop was entitled to brew mead
and beer six times annually without payment of
taxes. The Pesakhovich family evidently refused
to recognize the validity of this privilege and en-
deavored to collect the taxes. The case was carried
to the courts, but the bishop being unable to show
any documents in support of his claim, and admit-
ting that it was merely based on custom, the queen
decided that the legal validity of the custom should
not be recognized; but since the income of the
" kanuny " was collected for the benelit of the
Church the tax-farmers were required to give an-
nually to the archbishop 9 stones of Avax for can-
dles, "not as a tax, but merely as a mark of our
kindly intention toward God's churches."

The Pesakhovich family continues to be mentioned
prominently in a large number of documents, some
of them dated in the late sixties of the sixteenth
century. Thus in a document of May 19, 1555,
Nahum Pesakhovich, as representative of all the
Jews in the grand duchy of Lithuania, lodged a
complaint with the king against the magistrate and
burghers of Kiev because, coutrar}' to the old-estab-
lished custom, they had prohibited the
The Pe- Jews from coming to Kiev for trading
sakhovich in the city stores, and compelled them
Family. to stop at, and to sell their wares in,
the cit}^ market recently erected by the
burghers. Postponing his final decision until his
return to Poland, the king granted the Jews the
right to carry on trade as theretofore.

In a document of Oct. 31, 1558, it is stated that
the customs, inns, breweries, and ferries of Pinsk,
which had been leased to Nahum and Israel Pesak-
hovich for 450 kop groschen, were now awarded to
Khaim Rubinovich for the annual sum of 550 gro-
X.— 4

schen. This indicates that the Pesakhovich family
was yielding to the competition of younger men.

An interesting light is shed on contemporary con-
ditions by a document dated Dec. 12, 1561. This
contains the complaint of Nahum Pesakhovich
against Grigori Grichin, the estate-owner in the
district of Pinsk, who liad mortgaged to him, to
secure a debt of 33 kop groschen and of 5 pails of
unfermented mead, six of his men in the village
of Poryechye, but liad given him only live men.
The men thus mortgaged to Nahum Pesakhovich
were each compelled to pay annually to the latter
20 groschen, one barrel of oats, and a load of hay ;
they served him oneday in every seven, and assisted
him at harvest-time. This would indicate that the
Jesvs, like the boyars, commanded the services of
the serfs, and could hold them under mortgage.
In another document, dated 1565, Nahum Pesakho-
vich informed the authorities that he had lost in the
house of the burgher Kimich 10 kop groschen and
a case containing his seal with his coat of arms.

In 1551 Pinsk is mentioned among the communi-
ties whose Jews were freed from the pa3'ment of the
special tax called "serebschizna." In 1552-55 the
starostof Pinsk took a census of the district in order
to ascertain the value of property which was held in
the district of Queen Bona. In the data thus secured
the Jewi.sh hou.se-owners in Pinsk and the Jewi.sh
landowners in its vicinity are mentioned. It ap-
pears from this census that Jews owned property
and lived on the following streets: Dymiskovskaya
(along the river), Stephanovskayaulitza (beyond the
Troitzki bridge), Velikaya ulitza from the Spasskiya
gates, Kovalskaya, Grodetz, and Zhi-
The Pinsk dovskayaulitzi, and the street near the

Jewry in Spass Church. The largest and most
1555. prominent Jewish property-owners in
Piu.sk and vicinity were the members
of the Pesakhovich family — Nahum, Mariana, Israel,
Kusko, Rakhval (probably Jerahmeel), Mosko, and
Lezcr Nahumovich ; other prominent property-
owners were Ilia Moiseyevich, Nosko Moiseyevich,
Abram Markovich, and Lezer Markovich. The syn-
agogue and the house of the cantor were situated
in the Zhidovskaya ulitza. Jewish settlements near
the village of Ku.stzich are mentioned.

A number of documents dated 1561 refer in vari-
ous connections to the Jews of Pinsk. Thus one of
March 10, 1561, contains a complaint of Pan Andrei
Okhrenski, representative of Prince Nikolai Radzi-
will, and of the Jew Mikhel against Matvei Voitek-
hovich, estate-owner in the district of Pinsk; the
last-named had sent a number of his men to the
potash-works belonging to Prince Radziwill and
managed by the Jew above-mentioned. These men
attacked the works, damaging the premises, driving
off the laborers, and committing many thefts.

By a decree promulgated May 2, 1561, King Sigis-
mund August appointed Stanislav Dovorino as su-
perior judge of Pinsk and Kobrin. and placed all
the Jews of Pinsk and of the neighboring villages
under his jurisdiction, and their associates Avere
ordered to turn over the magazines and stores to the
magistrate and burghers of Pinsk. In August of the
same year the salt monopoly of Pinsk was awarded
to the Jews Khemiya and Abram Rubinovich,

Pinsk
Pinsker

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

But on Dec. 25, 1564, the leases were awarded to
the Jews Vaska Medenchich and Gershon Avramo-
vich, who offered the king 20 kop gioschen more
than was paid by the Christian merchants. In the
following year the income of Pinsk was leased to
the Jew David Shmerlevich.

In the census of Pinsk taken again in 1566, Jew-
ish house-owners are found on streets not mentioned
in the previous census; among these were the Stara,
Lyshkovska, and Sochivchinskaya ulitzy. Among
the house-owners not previous)}' mentioned were
Zelman, doctor ("doctor," meaning "rabbi " or "day-
yan "), Meir Moiseyevia, doctor, Novach, doctor,
and others. The Pesakhovich family was still
prominent among the landowners.

In a circular letter of 1578 King Stephen Bathori
informed the Jews of the town and district of Pinsk
that because of their failure to pay their taxes in
gold, and because of their indebtedness, he would
send to them the nobleman Mikolai
Under Ste- Kindei with instructions to collect the
phen sumdue. By an order of Jan. 20, 1581,

Bathori. King Stephen Bathori granted the
Magdeburg Uiglits to the city of
Pinsk. This provided that Jews who had recently
acquired houses in tiie town were to pay the same
ta.xesas the Christian householders. Thenceforward,
however, tiie Jews were forbidden, under penalty
of confiscation, to buy houses or to acquire them in
any other way. Elsewhere in the same document the
citizens of Pinsk are given permission to build a
town hall in the market-place, and for this purpose
the Jewish shops were to be torn down. The grant
of the Magdeburg Rights was subsequently con-
firmed by Sigismund III. (1589-1623), Ladislaus IV.
(1633), and John Casimir (1650).

In spite of the growing competition of the
Christian merchants, the Jews must have carried on
a considerable import and export trade, as is shown
by the custom-house records of Brest-Litovsk.
Among tho.se who exported goods from Pinsk to
Lublin in 1583 Levko Bendetovich is mentioned (wax
and skins), and among the importers was one Hay-
vim Itzkhakovich (steel, cloth, iron, scythes, prunes,
onion-seed, and girdles). Abraham Zroilevich im-
ported caps, Hungarian knives, velvet girdles, linen
from Glogau, nuts, prunes, lead, nails, needles,
pins, and ribbons. Abraham Me}'erovich imported
wine. Other importers were Abram Yaknovich,
Yatzko Nosanovicli, Yakub Aronovich, and Hilel
and Rubin Lazarevich.

About 1620 the LiTnr.\Ni.\N Cou>'ciL wf sorgan-
ized, of which Pinsk, witli Brest-Litovsk and Grod-
no, became a part. In 1640 the Jews Jacob Rabin -
ovich and Mordecai-Shmoilo Izavelevioh applied in
their own name, and in the names of all the, Jews
then living on church lands, to Pakhomi Oranski,
the Bisiiop of Pinsk and Turov, for permission to
remit all taxes directly to him instead of to tiie par-
ish priests. Complying with this request, the
bishop reaffirmed the rights previously granted to
the Jews; they were at liberty to build houses on
their lots, to rent them to newly arrived people, to
build inns, breweries, etc.

Toward the middle of the seventeenth century the
Jews of Pinsk began to feel more and more the ani-

mosity of their Christian neighbors; and this was

true also of other Jewish communities. In 1647

" Lady" Deboraii Lezerovaaud her son

Increasing- "Sir" Yakub Lezerovich complained

Anti- to the magistrates that their grain and

Jewish hay had been set on fire by peasants.

Feeling. In the following year numerous com-
plaints of attack, robbery, plunder,
and arson were reported by the local Jews. Rebel-
lion was in the air, and with the other Jewish com-
munities in Lithuania that of Pinsk felt the cruelties
of the advancing Cossacks, who killed in great num-
bers the poorer Jews who were not able to escape.
Prince Radziwill, who hastened to the relief of the
cit3\ finding the rioters there, set it on fire and
destroyed it.

Hannover, in " Yewen Mezulah," relates that the
Jews who remained in Pinsk and those who were
found on the roads or in the suburbs of that city
were all killed by the Cossacks. He remarks also
that when Radziwill set fire to the town, many of
the Cossacks endeavored to escape by boats and
Avere drowned in the river, while others were killed
or burned by the Lithuanian soldiers. Meir ben
Samuel, in "Zuk ha-'Ittim," says that the Jews of
Pinsk were delivered by the townspeople (i.e., the
Greek Orthodox) to the Cossacks, who massacred
them.

Evidently Jews had again appeared in Pinsk by
1651, for the rural judge Dadzibog Markeisch, in
his will, reminds his wife of his debt of 300 gulden
to the Pinsk Jew Gosher Abramovich, of which he
had already repaid 100 gulden and 110 thalers, and
asks her to pa}' the remainder. In 1(562 the Jews of
Pinsk were relieved by John Casimir of the head-
tax, which the)' were unable to pay on account of
their impoverished condition. On April 11, 1665,
the heirs of the Jew Nathan Lezerovicli were
awarded by the court their claim against Pana
Tcrletzkaya for 69.209 zlot. For her refusal to al-
low the collection of the sum as ordered by the
court she was expelled from the country. In 1665,
after the country had been ruined by the enemy, the
Jewish community of Pinsk paid its proportion of
special taxation for the benefit of the nobility.

Beyond the fact that Hasidism developed in the
suburb of Karliu (see Aakon hen J.vcob of Kar-
lin), little is known about the history of the Pinsk
community in the eighteenth century; but since the
first quarter of the nineteenth century the Jews
there have taken an active part in the development
of the export and import trade, especially with Kiev,
Krementcluig, and Yekaterinoslav, with which it is
connected by a steamship line on the Dnieper.
jNIany of the members of the Jewisii community of
Pinsk removed to the newly opened South-Russian
province and became active members of the various
commimities there. In the last quarter of the nine-
tecntii century prominent Jewish citizens of Pinsk
developed to a considerable extent
In the its indu.stries, in which thousands of
Nineteenth Jewisii workers now find steady oc-

Century. cupation. They have established
chemical-factories, sawmills, a match-
factory (400 Jewish workers, producing 10,000,000
boxes of matches per annum ; established by L. Hirsch-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pinsk
Piusker

man in 1900), shoe-nail factor\' (200 Jewisli work-
ers), candle-factory, cork-factory, parquet-factory,
brewery, and tobacco-factories (with a total of 800
Jewish workers). The Liiriesand Levineshavel)een
especially active in that direction. Another cork-
factory, owned by a Christian, employs 150 Jewish
workers: and the shipyards (owned by a French-
man), in which large steamers and sailing vessels are
built, also employs a few hundred Jews. Besides
these, there are many Jewish artisans in Pinsk who are
occupied as nailsmiths, founders, workers in brass,
and tanners; in soap-manufactories, small brew-
eries, violin-string factories, the molasses-factory,
the flaxseed-oil factory, and the tallit-factory. In
all these the Jewish Sabbath and holy days are
strictly observed. Many Jewish laborers are cm-
ployed on the docks of Pinsk and as skilled boatmen.
Pinsk has become one of the chief centers of Jew-
ish industry in northwest Russia. The total out-
put of its Jewish factories is valued at two and a
half million rubles. The pay of working men per
week in the factories is:

Industry.

Men.

Women.

Sawmills

3 to 7 rubles.

3 to .5 "

3.60

6 to 18 "

6 to 16 "

1.20 to 2..''.0 rubles.

MaU-h -factories

Caudle "

Shipyards

1.20 to 2.50 "
1.80

Since 1890 there have been technical classes connected
•with the Pinsk Talmud Torah, where the boys learn
the trades of locksmiths, carpenters, etc., and technol-
ogy, natural history, and drawing.

Bibliography: Reaestu i Nadpisi; Russltn-Yevreiski Ar-
khiv. vols. i. and li.; Voskhud, Oct., 1901, p. 23; Welt, 1898,
No. 11.

J. G. L.

The first rabbi mentioned in connection with Pinsk
is R. Simson. With R. Solomon Luria (MaHRaSh)
and R. ^lordecai of Tiktin, he was chosen, in 1568,
to adjudicate the controversy relating to the asso-
ciation of Podlasye. His successors were: R. Naph-
tali, son of R. Isaac Katz (removed to Lublin; d.
1650); R. Moses, son of R. Israel Jacob (c. 1073;
his name occurs in the "Sha'are Shamayim ") ; R.
Naphtali, son of R. Isaac Ginsburg (d. 1687); R.
Samuel Halpern, son of R. Isaac Halpern (d. 1703;
mentioned in "Dibre Hakamim," 1691); R. Isaac
^leir, son of R. Jonah Te'omim; R. Samuel, son of
R. Naphtali Ilerz Ginzburg (mentioned in " 'Am-
mude 'Olam," Amsterdam, 1713); R. Asher Ginz-
burg (mentioned in the preface to "Ga'on Lewi");

R. Israel Isher, son of R. Abraham
Rabbis. Mamri (mentioned in Tanna debe

Eliyahu, 1747); R. Raphael, son of
R. Jekuthiel Slissel (1763 to 1773; d. 1804); R.
Abraham, son of R. Solonum (mentioned in the
"Netib ha-Yashar"); R. Levy Isaac; R. Abigdor
(had a controversy with the Hasidim on the ques-
tion of giving precedence in prayers to " Ilodu "
over "Baruk she-Amar"; the question was sub-
mitted for settlement to Emperor Paul I. : "Vosk-
hod," 1893, i.): R.Joshua, son of Shalom (Phine-
has Michael, "Masseket Nazir," Preface): R. Hay-
yim ha-Kohen Rapoport (resigned in 1825 to go to
Jerusalem; d. 1840); Aaron of Pinsk (author of

"Tosefot Aharon," KOnigsberg, 1858; d. 1842); R.
i\Iordecai Sackiieim (1843 to his death in 1853); R.
Eleazar Moses Hurwitz (1860 to his death in 1895).

Among those members of the communit}- of
Pinsk who achieved distinction were the following:
R. Elijah, son of R. Moses ("Kiryah Ne'emanah,"
p. 125) ; R. Moses Goldes, grandson of the author of
"Tola'at Ya'akob"; R. Kalonymus Kalniau Ginz-
burg (president of the community); R. Jonathan
(•'Dibre Rab Meshallem ") ; R. Sf>lomon Bachrach,
sou of ]{. Samuel P-.ichrach ("' Pinkas Tiktin"); li.
Hayyimof Karlin("'Ir Wilna," p. 31); R. Solomon,
son of R. Asher ("Geburath He-Or"); R. Joseph
Janower ("Zeker Yehosef," Warsaw, I860): R.
Samuel, son of Moses Levin ("Ba'al Kedoshim,"
p. 210): R. Asher, son of R. Kalonymus Kalinan
Ginzburg ("'Kiryah Ne'emanah," p. 185); R. (Jad
Asher, son of R. Joshua Rokeah (" Anshe Shem," p.
63); R. Joshua Ezekiel (ih.); R- Hayyim SchOnlinkel
(ib. p. 70); R. Abraham Isaac ("Birkat Rosh"); R.
Notel Michael Sch5ntinkel ("Da'at Kedoshim," p.
181); Zeeb, Moses, Isaac, and Solomon Wolf, sous
of R. Samuel Levin; R. Jacob Simhah Wolfsohn
("Anshe Shem," p. 40); R. Aaron Luria; R. Samuel
Radinkovitz.

The writers of Pinsk include: R. Moses Aaron
Schatzkes (author of "Mafteah"), R. Zebi Hirsch,
Shereshevski, A. B. Dobsevage, N. M. Schaikewitz,
Baruch Epstein, E. D. Lifshitz. Abraham Kunki
passed through Pinsk while traveling to collect
money for the support of the Jerusalem Talmud To-
rah (preface to " Abak Soferim," Amsterdam, 1701).

In 1781 the heads of the Jewish congregations of
Pinsk followed the example of some Russian Jewish
communities by excommunicating the Hasidim. In
1799 the town was destroyed by fire, and its records
were lost. Pinsk has two cemeteries : in the older, in-
terments ceased in 1810. The total population of the
town (1905) is about 28,000, of whom 18,000 are Jews.

Karlin : Until about one hundred 3'ears ago Kar-
lin was a suburb of Pinsk, and its Jewish residents
constituted a part of the Pinsk community. Then
R. Samuel Levin obtained the separation of Karlin
from Pinsk (Steinschneider, "'Ir Wilna," p. 188).
In 1870 the Hasidim of Karlin removed to the
neighboring town of Stolin. The rabbis of the Mit-
naggedim of Karlin include: R. Samuel Antipoler;
R. Abraham Rosenkraiiz; the "Rabbi of Wolpe"
(his proper name is imknown); R. Jacob (author of
"Miskenot Ya'akob") and his brother R. Isaac (au-
thor of " Keren Orah ") ; R. Samuel Abigdor Tose-
fa'ah (author of "She'elot u-Teshubot'") : David
Friedmann (the present [1905] incumbent: author
of " Yad Dawid ").

n. R. B. Ei.

PINSKER, DOB BAR B. NATHAN : Polish
Talmudist of the eighteenth century. He was a
descendant of Nathan Spira of Cracow, and the
author of the Talmudical work " Neta' Sha'ashu'im "
(Zolkiev, 1748), which contains novella? on the sec-
tion Nashim of the Babylonian Talmud and on the
tractates Makkot and Shebu'ot, besides some collec-
tanea.

Bibmooraphy: Fiirst. Bihl. Jud. Hi. 104; Zedner, Cat. Hchr.
nniika lirit. ^hl!>. p. 210; Fuenn, Keticset Yisrad, pp. 186-

187, Warsaw, 1886.

E. C. P. Wl.

Pinsker
Pinto

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lev Pinsker.

PINSKER, LEV (LEV SEMIONOVICH) :

Russian plivsiciau; burn at Tuniaslicv, govLTunieut
of Piotrkow (Piotrikov), Poland. 1821; son of Sim-
hah Pinsker; died at Odessa Dec. 21, 1891. Pinsker
obtained his early education in his father's school,
the curriculum of which included not only general
subjects but also specifically Jewish ones. After
finishing his course there he entered the gymnasium,
and later the Richelieu Lyceum. On graduating
from the latter institution he accepted the position
of instructor hi the Russian language at the Jewish
school in Kishiuef. In the following yeav he began
a medical course in the University of Moscow, and

while still a student dis-
played great courage in
devoting himself to the
care of hospital patients
suffering from cholera,
which disease was at that
time (1848) epidemic. On
completing his course he
returned to Odessa, and
soon after was appointed
to the staff of the city hos-
pital, having been highly
recommended by the au-
thorities. His great in-
dustry and thoroughness
gradually won for him the
recognition of his col-
leagues and of the public,
and within ten years he became one of the foremost
physicians of Odessa.

Pinsker likewise took an active interest in com-
munal affairs. He also published occasional arti-
cles in the periodicals "Sion," "Den," and "Raz-
svyet." Though not a prolific writer, Pinskerevinced
much originality and feeling; and his articles were
always forceful. He pleaded earnestly for more
freedom for the Russian Jews, and endeavored to
convince the latter of the great value of modern
education. In time Pinsker came to see that the
Russian Jew could not expect much from an auto-
cratic government, and that any deliverance for him
must come through his own exertions. The expres-
sion of this conviction appears in his " Autoemanci-
pation," which appeared in 1881 over the nom de
plume "Ein Russischer Jude." The author's name
soon became known, however, and the pamphlet
created much comment and discussion. Pinsker
advocated therein the acquisition of land by the
Jews, inasmuch as without homes of their own they
would always remain strangers.

A congress of delegates from almost all the coun-
tries of Europe met to discu.ss the fundamental idea
set forth Ijy Pinsker, but failed to formulate an ef-
fective plan for the solution of the problem. The
only practical outcome was the establishment of a
society for the aid of Jewish inmiigrants in Pales-
tine and Syria. As chairman of this .society Pinsker
energetically devoted himself to the question, work-
ing patiently throughout the remainder of his life for
the establi.shment of Jewish settlers in the Holy Land.

BinLior.RAPnv: N. R. Rashkovskl, SSovrememtyye Ru!>slso-
Yevreinldyc Dyeyatcli, p. (U, Odessa, 1899.
H. R, J. G. L.

PINSKER, SIMHAH : Polish Hebrew scholar
and archeologist ; born at Tarnopol, Galicia, JIarch
17, 1801 ; died at Odessa Oct. 29, 1864. He received
his carl}-- Hebrew education in the heder and from
his father, Shebah ha-Levi, a noted preacher, who
instructed him in mathematics and German also.
In his youth Pinsker was an enthusiastic admirer of
the Hasidim, but soon forsook them. He at first
engaged in business, but, having no aptitude there-
for, was obliged to abandon it. He then went to
Odessa, and, owing to his calligraphic skill, became
secretary to the rabbi. Here, in conjunction with
Lsaac Horowitz of Brody and Littenfeld, Pinsker
succeeded in establishing a public school for Jewish
children, of Avhich he himself served as principal
until 1840.

At that time Abraham Fiimovicn, a Karaite
scholar, brought to Odessa a number of ancient
manuscripts, unearthed in the Crimea. Among
these was one of the Later Prophets which had a
singular punctuation, differing widely in the form
of the vowels and singing-accents from the one then
in use. This manuscript gave ample opportunity
to Pinsker to satisfy his propensity for research.
He at once set himself to the task of deciphering the
system of punctuation, and satisfactorily acconi-
plished it. He had already become known as an ar-
cheologist of merit through his contributions to the
" Orient " ; but with this di.scovery his fame was es-
tablished. He was thereupon honored by the Rus-
sian government with two gold medals and with the
title "Honorable Citizen"; and the communit}' of
Odessa bestowed upon him a life-pension of 300
rubles a year.

Pinsker then retired from communal work, and
repaired to Vienna in order to devote the rest of his
life to his researches and to the arrangement and
publication of his works. Of these the first and
most important one was"Likkute Kadmoniyyot"
(Vienna, 1860), in which he describes the different
periods of development in the history of Karaism.
He maintains that the term " Karaite " is derived
from the Hebrew " kara " (Xtp) = " to call," " to in-
vite," and that its u.se dates from the first period of
the schism, when the members of this sect sent mes-
sengers throughont Jewry "to invite" the people
to join their ranks ("' Likk\itc Kadmoniyyot," p.
16). Pinsker moreover attempts to show through-
out the whole work that to the scholars of this
sect who preceded the orthodox Biblical scholars
and grammarians is due the correct system of Bib-
lical orthography, grammar, and lexicography ; and
that even in their poetry the Karaites were models
for the Hebrew poets of the Middle Ages, such as
Ibn Gabirol and Jiidah ha-Levi (ih. p. 107). The
"Likkute Kadmoniyyot" made such an imjiression
upon the scholarly world that Jost and Graetz pub-
licly avowed their indebtedness to the author, the
former even changing, in consequence, some of the
views expressed in his history of the Jewish sects.

The other great work of Pinsker, published in
his lifetime, was "Mabo el ha-Nikkud ha-Ashshuri
weha-Babli " (Vienna, 1863), an introduction to the
Babylonian-Hebraic system of punctuation ; it con-
tains tiie results of his examination of the manu-
scripts in the Odessa library. As an appendix to it is

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Finsker
Pinto

printed the " Yesod Mispar," by Abraham ibn Ezra,

ou the Hebrew numerals. Pinsker's other works are :

an edition of the "Miklol" (Lyck, 1862). Hebrew

grammar by D. Kimhi, with emendations by Pinsker

and others; "Sefer ha-Ehad " (Odessa, 1867), on the

nine cardinal numbers, by Abraham ibn Ezra, with

commentary; and "Mishle lia-Gezerah weha-Bin-

yan " (Vienna, 1887), on the Hebrew verb. Pinsker

left, besides, a considerable number of manuscripts

ou the Hebrew language and literature.

At Vienna, Pinsker lectured for some time at the

bet ha-midrasli; but, his health soon failing, he was

brought back by his children to Odessa, Avherc he

died.

Bibliography : Zederbaum, In Mizpah, Iv. 13-U ; idem, in
Ha-Mcliz, 18(54, No. 43; Ha-Magliid, 18&'), Nos. 7-10 ; Mo-
natsschrift, x. 176 et ^eq.: Hc-Haht:}, v. 56 et seq.; Mazkir
li-liene lieshef, in Ha-Shahai; i. 40 et seq.; H. S. Morais,
Eminent l»raeliles of the iVinetcenth Century, pp. 279 et
seq., Philadelphia, 1880.
H. 15. A. S. W.

PINTO or DE PINTO : Family of financiers,
rabbis, scholars, soldiers, and communal workers,
originally from Portugal. Members of it lived in
Syria in the beginning of the sixteenth century; and
in 1535 there was at Rome a Diogo Rodrigues Pinto,
advocate of the Maranos. But its most prominent
members lived in Holland, particularly in Amster-
dam, in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
They were among the greatest financiers in that
city ; and one of them bequeathed several millions
to the Jewish community, to the state, to Christian
orphanages and churches, and to the Christian clergy
(see his testament in Schudt, "Jlidische Merkwur-
digkeiten," i. 292). Members of the family were also
prominent in South America, namelj^ in Brazil and
in Dutch Guiana, in the beginning of the eighteenth
century. About the same time other members set-
tled in the United States, becoming very influential,
especially in the state of Connecticut, where they
took an active part in the Revolution. The earliest
mention of the Pintos in the Connecticut records is
under date of 1724; in those of New York, 1736.
The best-known members of this family are:

Aaron de Pinto : Trustee of the Portuguese con-
gregation at Amsterdam in the beginning of the
eighteenth century. He supported Solomon Ayl-
LON against Zebi Hirsch Ashkenazi. Ayllon con-
vinced Pinto that it was his duty to uphold the
superiority of the Portuguese community over the
Ashkenazim. He thus helped greatly to protect Ne-
Lemiah Hayyun and to persecute Ashkenazi. Pinto
and Ayllon even suggested that Ashkenazi should
be cited before the Portuguese council, which, since
he did not heed the summons, excommunicated him.

T>. M. Sel.

Aaron Adolf de Pinto: Dutch jurist; son of
Moses de Pinto and Sara Salvador; born at The
Hague Oct. 24, 1828; studied law at Leyden (LL.D.
1852). In 1862 he was appointed referendary in the
Department of Justice, in 1871 "Raadsadviseur,"
and in 1876 justice of the Supreme Court; he be-
came vice-president of that court Dec. 31, 1903.
He has been a member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences since 1877. The law of i872, abolishing
tithes, was drawn up by De Pinto. From 1870 to
1881 he was secretary of a commission appointed to

prepare a penal code, which was put in force in
1886; he Avas a member also of the colonial penal
code commission. He is the author of the "Me-
morie van Toelichting op liet Wetsontwerp tot Af-
schaffiug van de Doodstraf." From 1888 to 1902 De
Pinto was editor-in-chief of the " WeekbJad voor het
Reclit," and lie was one of the founders of the Juris-
tenvereeniging. He has published : " Wetboek van
Strafrecht voor Nederland.sch IndiG; Wetboek voor
Europeanen, Gevolgd door Memorie van Toelich-
ting" (The Hague, 1866); "Hezzien Wetboek van
Strafvoidering " (2 vols., Zwolle, 1886-88); "Het
Proces Dreyfus Getoetst met Wet en Recht " (2
vols., 1898-99). De Pinto is commander of the
Order of the Netherlands Lion and oflicer of the
Crown of Italy.

Bibliography: Enien Haard, 1898 (with portrait); Een
Halve Eeuw, i. 190 ; ii. 52, 57, 60.

s. E. Si..

Abraham Pinto : Cofounder, with his brother
David Pinto, of the Portuguese community at Rot-
terdam in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
The two brothers established also a school (Jesiba de
los Pinto.s), ■which, in 1669, after the death of one of
the touiiders, was transferred to Amsterdam.

Abraham Pinto : Soldier in the American army
in 1775, at the time of the Revolution. He Avas a
member of Companj' X, Seventh Regiment of the
State of Connecticut.

i>. M. Sel.

Abraham de Pinto: Dutch jurist; born at The
Hague May 27, 1811 ; died there May 26, 1878. He
studied law at Leyden (LL.D. 1835) and was awarded
a gold medal by the university for a competitive
thesis entitled "E.xponaturetad Examen Revocetur
Locus C. C. de Causa Obligandi" (1835). In 1835
he became editor-in-chief of the " Weekblad voor het
Recht," and from 1840 to 1876 he edited the period-
ical " Themis, " which he had founded. Abraham de
Pinto was a member of the municipal council of The
Hague from 1851 until his death. He was president
of the Sephardic congregation, and on his initiative
was founded the "Maatschappij tot Nut der Israe-
lieten in Nederland " (1850). He was appointed
" Landsadvocaat " Dec. 27, 1863.

De Pinto published the following works: "Een
Woord over de Circulaire van den Minister van
Justitie" (The Hague, 1850); "Handleiding tot de
Wet op den Overgang van de Vroegere tot de
Nieuwe Wetgeving" (ib. 1850); "Handleiding tot
het Wetboek van Burgerlijke Rechtsvordering "
(2d ed., 3 vols., 1857) ; " Adviezen 1838-52 " (Zwolle,
1862); "Handleiding tot het Wetboek van Koop-
handel " (3d ed., 2 vols., ib. 1879); "Handleiding tot
de Wet op de Rechterli jke Organisatie en het Beleid
der Justitie" (2d ed., rt. 1880); "Handleiding tot
het Wetboek van Strafvordering ' (2d ed., 2 vols.,
lb. 1882); "Handleiding tot het Burgerlijk AVet-
boek" (6th ed., ib. 1883-85).

Bibliography: Wcckhlad roor het Eecht, 1878. Nos. 4240,
4241; Uoest, NieitiLsbodc, iii. 49; Brinkman, Catah>gus.
s. E. Sl.

Daniel Pinto : Syrian Talmudi,st; lived at Aleppo
in the seventeenth century. He and Moses Galante
went to Smyrna in order to pay homage to Shab-
bethai Zebi.

Pinto

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

David Pinto : Cofounder, with his brother Abra-
ham, iif tile Portuguese community at Rotterdam.

David Pinto : A rich broiier of Amsterdam in
the eigliteentli century who sided with Jonathan
Eybesciutz in his controversy with Jacob Emden.

Biblio(;rapiiv : Griitz. Gesch. 3d ed.. Ix. 262; x. 13, 211, 321,
368 ; Hiihner. in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. xi. 88 et seq.

Isaac Pinto : Dutch captain of the beginning of
the eigliteentli century. At the head of a company of
Jews, Pinto in 1712 heroically defended the village
of Savanna in Surinam and beat off the French
under Cassard. Southey ("History of Brazil," ii.
241) speaks of a captain named Pinto, wiio, when
the Dutch were for the second time besieged at Re-
cife, defended the fort single-handed, until, over-
whelmed by superior numbers, he was obliged to
surrender. He is probabl}' identical with the sub-
ject of this article.

Bibmography: Felsenthal and Gottheil in Puhl. Am. Jew.
Hist. Sue. iv. 3; G. A. Kohiit, il). iii. 118 ct seq.; Koenen,
(ie:<chieileui.'! ili:i-Ji>(le)i iit yideiiatul, pp. 281,294; Simon
Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Huldier, and Citizen,

p. 452.

U. M. Sel.

Isaac Pinto: American ritualist; born about
1721; died Jan., 1791; member of Congregation
Shearith Israel in the city of New York. He is re-
membered chietiy for having prepared what is prob-
ably the earliest Jewish prayer-book published in
America, and certainly the first work of its kind
printed in New York city. The work appeared in
1766, and the title-page reads as follows: "Prayers
for Shabbath, Rosli-llashanah and Kippur, or the
Sabbath, the beginning of the j'ear, and the Day of
Atonement, with the Amidah and Musaph of the
Moadim or Solemn Seasons, according to the Order
of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. Translated
by Isaac Pinto and for him printed b}' John Holt in
New York. A.]\I. Oi")26." It seems that the ma-
liamad of the London congregation would not per-
mit this translation to be published in Enijland (see
Jacobs and Wolf, "Bibl. Anglo-Jud." p. 174. Lon-
don, 1888; G. A. Kohut, in ">ubl. Am. Jew. Hist.
Soc." iii. 121; Lady Magnus, "Outlines of Jewish
History," p. 348, Philadelphia, 1890).

Pinto was the friend and correspondent of Ezra
Stiles, president of Yale College, who as late as 1790
mentions him in his diary as "a learned Jew at New
York." From Stiles' account it appears that Pinto
was a good Hebrew scholar, studying Ibu Ezra in
the original. An Isaac Pinto, po.ssibly identical
with tlie subject of tliis article, appears to have been
a resident of Siratford, Conn., as early as 1748
("Colonial Records of Connecticut," ix. 406).

Bibliography : The Literary Diarjj of EzraStileit. ed. F. B.
I)t'Xt<!r, .New York. liiOl ; (ieorpe A. Kohut, Kzra Stik.i ri/id
the Jews. il». liXKi ; Morris .Iristrow. in I'lilil. Am. Jew. Hist. ■
Soc. X. 2!) ; Leon Huhner, TItc Jews of Xew Ktmlnnd Prior

to mx), il). Xi. 90.

•T. L. Hi:.

Isaac de Pinto : Portuguese moralist of Jew-
ish origin; born 1715; died Aug. 14. 1787, at The
Hague. He first settled at Bordeaux, and then re-
moved to Holland. Pinto was a man of wide infor-
mation, but did not begin to write until nearly fifty,
when he acqiiire<l a i-eputation by defending his co-
religionists against Voltaire. In 1762 he published
his "Essai sur le Luxe" at Amsterdam. In tlie

same year appeared his " Apologie pour la Nation
Juive, ou Reflexions Critiques." The author sent
a manuscript copy of this work to Voltaire, who
thanked him. Guenee reproduced the "Apologie"
at the head of his " Lettres de Quelques Juifs Portu-
gais, AUemands et Polouais. a M. de Voltaire." In
1768 Pinto sent a letter to Diderot on "Du Jeu de
Cartes." His " Traitede la Circulation etdu Credit "
appeared in Amsteidam iu 1771. and was twice re-
printed, besides being translated into English and
German. His "Precis des Arguments Contre les
]\hiterialistes" was published at The Hague in 1774.
Pinto's works were published in French (Am-
sterdam, 1777) and also in German (Leipsic, 1777).

Bibliography: Didot, iN'oiu-eZ/c Biographic Geni'rale,r).282;
Barbier, Dietinnnaire dcA Auounines; Dictinttnaire d' Eco-
nomic Politicale, ii.; Qut?rard, La France Litteraire, in^lJJ-
ijemeine Litteraturzeituug, 1787, No. 273.
D. I. Co.

Jacob Pinto : Earlj' Jewish settler at New Haven,
Conn., where he was residing in 1759; brother of
Solomon Pinto. He figures repeatedly in C(jnnecti-
cut records between 1765 and 1776. Pinto espoused
the patriot cause at the outbreak of the American
Revolution ; and he appears to have been a member
of a political committee at New Haven in 1775. His
name appears, with that of other influential citizens
of the place, in a petition to the Council of Safety
for the removal of certain Tories in 1776.

Bibliography: J. W. Barber, Connectintt Historical Collec-
tions, p. ITti. New Haven, n.d.; Leon Hiihner. The Jewn of
New Eiifilond Prior to ISOO, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.
xi. 93, and aiiUiorities there cited.

Joseph Jesurun Pinto : American rabbi; born
probably in England; died 1766. He was leader
of Congregation Shearith Israel, New York, from
1759 to 1766, having been selected for tiie posi-
tion and .sent to New York by the London con-
gregation pursuant to a request from that of New
York. A letter from the former to the latter, dated
1758, relating to the matter is still extant. Pinto
became a minister as a very young man, and in
1762 married Rebecca, daughter of Moses de la
Torre of London. The only literary production of
his that has come down is a form of prayer for a
thanksgiving service for the "Reducingof Canada,"
published at New York in 1760.

Bibmography: N. T. Phillips, in Puhl. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.
ii.49-.">l. vi. 12!); Charles V. Daly, The Settlement of the Jews
in Nortli America, p. .')(), Nrw York, 1893; M. tiaster. Hist,
of Bevis Marks, London, 19(11.
J. L. Hi).

Josiah. ben Joseph Pinto (RIF) : Syrian labbi
and preacher; born at Damascus about 1505; died
there Feb. or March, 164S. His father, Joseph
Pinto, was one of the rich and chaiitable men of
that city. Josiah was a jmpil of various rabbis in
Talmud and Cabala, and later, after his father's
death, he studied Talmud under Jacob Abulafia, who
ordained him as rabbi. Pinto's perinaneiit residence
was at Damascus, where later he ollicialed as rabbi
until his death. lie went twice to Aleppo, and
in 1625 he removed to Safed with the intention of
settling there; but the death of his young son,
Joseph, which occurred a year later, induced him to
return to Damascus.

Pinto was the author of tlie following works:
" Kesef Nibl.iar" (Damascus, 1616), a collection of

n — -VK — t!—-r-

R A Y E R S

FOR
SHABBATI-J, ROSH-HASHANAH, and KIPPUR,

O R

The SABBATH, the BEGINNING of the YEAR.

AND

The D A Y of ATONEMENTS;

WITH

The ^iMIDAH and MUSAPH of the MO^DIM,

O R
SOLEMN SEASONS.

According to the Order of the Spanifh and For tugucfc Jews,
Translated by ISJJC PINTO.

And for him printed by JOTTN HOLT, in New- York,

. A. M. 55^6.

I
'■",i

Title-Page from Isaac Pinto's Translation of the Prayer-book, Printed at New York, 17t

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.)

Plotrkow
Pirbright

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

homilies and comments on Genesis and Exodus;
"Kesef Mezukkak " (finished IG'25, and published at
Venice, 1628), a homiletic commentary on the Pen-
tateuch, followed by a pamphlet entitled "Kesef
To'afot," glosses on the Pentateuch; "Me'or 'Ena-
yira," commentary on Jacob ibn Habib's "'En
Ya'akob," which is a collection of the haggadot of
the Babylonian Talmud (part 1., with the text, Ven-
ice, 1643; part ii., with other commentaries and the
text. Amsterdam, 1754); "Kesef Zaruf " {i/>. 1714),
commeutar}' on Proverbs; and "Nibhar mi-Kesef "
(Aleppo, 1869). Some of his responsa are to be
found in the collection of Yom-Tob Zahalon and in
Aaron Alfandari"s " Yad Aharon." His unpublished
works are: "Kesef Nim'as," a commentary on
Lamentations; "Kebuzzat Kesef." a collection of
civil laws and of laws concerning women; and a
collection of responsa.

BiBLioORAPHV : Azxi\aUShemha-GednJim,l.: Tuenn, Keneset
riVj-flf/, p. 382; Furst, Bi7;/.7i<(/. iii. 104 ; Klijali Vita Sa.ssoon,
In Ha-Lcbanon, vli. 15, 23; Steinschneider, Cat. liodl. cols.
1546-1547.
D. M. Sel.

Juan Delgado Pinto. See Delgado.

Solomon Pinto : American patriot in the Revo-
lutionary war. A settler at New Haven, Conn., he
served as an officer in the Connecticut line through-
out the war, and was among the patriots wounded
in the British attack upon New Haven July 5 and
6, 1779. Pinto's name appears repeatedly in Revo-
lutionary records; and he has the additional distinc-
tion of having been one of the original members of
the Society of the Cincinnati in Connecticut. He is
mentioned as late as 1818.

Bibliography: Becord «f Service of Connecticut Men in
the War of the Revolution, pp. 218, 325, 360. 373, 553, 636,
Hartford. 1889; Leon Hiihner, The Jeu'.s of New Eng-
land Prior to 1800, In Puhl Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. xl. 94-95,
and authorities there given; G. H. HoUister, The History
of Connecticut, 11. 372, New Haven, 1855; Royal R. Hlnman,
Historical Collection, p. 567, Hanford, 1842.

J. L. Hu.

PIOTRKOW: Town in Russian Poland, near
Wars.'iw\ For some time Piotrkow was the seat of
the Polish diet. At the diet of 1538, held there, it
■was enacted that no Jew should be permitted to
farm the taxes, and that Jews should wear distinct-
ive garments, "so that they might be distinguished
from Christians." Anti-Jewish laws were passed
also by the diets of 1562, 1563, and 1565, these diets
being influenced by the Jesuits. The Jewish com-
munity of Piotrkow, however, is specifically men-
tioned for the first time in 1567, when two Jews,
Isaac Borodavka and Mendel Isaakovich, were tax-
farmers in that town ("Gramoty Velikikh Knyazei
Litovskikh," p. 104). In the disastrous time be-
tween 1648 and 1658, the period of the Cossack up-
rising, the Jewish community of Piotrkow suffered
with the other communities in Poland. There were
then fifty families there, "almost all the members of
which were killed" by the Co.ssacks ("Le-Korot ha-
Gezerot," v. 19). In 1897 Piotrkow liad a large
Jewish community, having one synagogue, several
houses of prayer, and thirty six Hebrew schools.
An old and celebrated Hebrew printing-press is
established there. The town has a total population
of 24,866.

Bibliography: Entziklopcdichexhi Shwar, xxiii. 472; Gnitz,
(.'(W/i. (Hebrew transl.) vli. 318, 328 ; viii. 152 : Rcgcsty, i.. No.
551.

11. R. A. S. W.

PIOVE DI SACCO (ipL*"n K^T'D) : Small Ital-
ian city in tlu'dislrictof Padua; the first in that terri-
tory to admit Jews. A loan-bank was opened there
by an association ("consortium") before 1373, and
Avas probably an unimportant institution, as it paid
a yearly tax of only 100 lire. "Wiien, in 1455, the
Jews of Padua were forbidden to lend money, they
transacted their business through their fellow bank-
ers at Piove. No Jews except a few money -brokers
seem to have lived here; and apparently these were
expelled at an early date. Piove never had a
ghetto. Leone Komanini Jacur is now (1905) the
representative for Piove in the Italian Chamber of
Deputies.

The city owes its importance to the fact that a
Hebrew printing-press was temporarily established
there. Meshullam Cusi Rafab. Moses Jacob printed
at Piove Jacob b. Asher's "Arba' Turini " in folio,
1475, this being the second work issued there.
Complete copies of this edition are extremely rare.
A fine impression on parchment is in the citv library
at Padua (B. P. 574). The "Arba' Turim " was
circulated both as an entire work and in the sepa-
rate parts.

Bibliography: A. Ciscato. Gli Ehrei in Padova, 1901, pp. 21,
5:3, 158 ; G. B. de Rossi, Annates Hebrceo-Typoaraphici, etc.,
XV., No. 2.

G. L E.

PIPE : Musical instrument akin to the flute.
The flute was a favorite instrument of the ancients.
The monuments show flutes of various shapes. On
the Egyptian monuments are pictured (1) single-
tubed direct flutes made of reed or wood, (2) rather
long cross-flutes, and (3) long, thin, double-tubed
flutes, the tubes of which, liowever, were not fast-
ened together. On Assyrian monuments is depicted
a shorter, more trumpet-shaped double flute. The
Syrians used the small gingras — known also to the
Athenians — only a span long, with a penetrating,
mournful sound. The flutes used by the Greeks
were very varied; and it is probable that the Israel-
ites, too, played several kinds; but, unfortunately,
nothing definite about their sliape is known.

(1) The "halil," from "halal" (to bore through),
was a hollowed piece of wood. The name is evidence
for the fact that the flute was made from cane or
wood. It consisted of a tube and a tongue of cane.
The number of holes in the tube Avas originally only
two, three, or four; later it was increased. The
tones of such an instrument Avere naturally limited,
and it was manifestly necessary to have a special
flute for each key. It was not until art was more
highly developed that an instrument was made
which could be played in different keys. Among
the Israelites the halil was used for music played at
meals on festive occasions (Isa. v. 12), in festal pro-
cessions (I Kings i. 40), and during the pilgrim-
ages to .lerusalem (Isa. xxx. 29). The Israelites used
also the "nebi'im"in connection with the kettle-
drum (I Sam. X. 5). The flute was, in addition, the
special instrument to denote mourning (.Ter. xlviii.
36); and among the later Jews flute-playing was

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Piotrko-w
Pirbright

considered so essential at fvinerals that even the
poorest would not do Avitliout it.

In tlie days of the Old Testament there were no
flute-players in the Temple orchestra. In the Mish-
nah, 'Ar. ii. 3, mention is made that flutes were
played; it states that at the daily services from
two to twelve flutes were used. But they accom-

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Pipes in Use in Palestine.

(In-the United States Natloual Museum, Wa8hing;ton, D. C.)

panied psalm-singing only at the slaughtering of
the paschal lambs, on the first and seventh daj's of
the Passover, and during the eight days of the
Feast of Tabernacles, when a flute was plaj'cd be-
fore the altar to accompany the singing of the
"Hallel" (comp. Tacitus, "Historia," v. 5).

(2) A second kind of wind-instrument, known from
very early times, was the "'ugab," which was es-
sentially an instrument to express joyousness. and
was played for the amusement of the people, but
never at divine service. According to tradition,
which connects the use of the 'ugab Avith Jubal
(Gen. iv. 21), the instrument was a bagpipe ("sum-
pongah " ; Dan. iii. 5). The same sort of instru-
ment— called "ghaitah" in North Africa — is used in
Arabian music. The older descriptions correspond

in tiie main with the form now found in Egvpt,
Aral)ia, and Italy. Two pipes are inserted in a
leathern bag; one above, into which the player
blows; and the other, provided with holes, at the
bottom or slanting at the side, so that it may be
played with the fingers.

(3) The instrument mentioned in the Hebrew text
of Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, imder the name "mashro-
kita," is the syrinx, or Pan flute, which generally
consisted of seven to nine reed tubes, of different
lengths and thicknesses, arranged in a row. It was
the favorite instrument of shepherds in the Orient,
where it is used even at the present time. Whether
it was known to the Hebrews is very doubtful.

(4) "Nekeb" (Ezek. xxviii. 13 ct seq.) is generally
understood to denote a kind of flute; but this is
more than doubtful. The word is most likely a
technical term used in the goldsmith's art.

K. fi. n. W. N.

PIPERNO, SETTIMIO : Italian economist;
born at Rome 1834. He is (1905) professor of statis-
tics and political economy in the Technical Institute
of Rome, director of the Cesi Technical School,
and a member of the board of administration of the
Jewish community of Rome. Piperuo is the author
of the following works, in addition to various journal-
istic articles: "Studio sulla 3Iorale Indipendente ";
"Studio sulla Percezione"; "Elementi di Scienza
Ecouomica Esposti Secondo i Nuovi Programmi
Governatici per gl' Istituti Tecnici," Turin, 1878;
"II Riconoscimento GiuridicodelleSocietadi 3Iutuo
Soccorso," Rome, 1882; "La Pensioui di Vecchiaia
Presso le Societa di Mutuo Soccorso Italiane,"
Turin, 1883; "La Nuova Scuola di Dlritto Penale
in Italia, Studio di Scienza Sociale," Rome, 1886.

Bibliography : De Gubematis, Diz. Biog.; idem, Ecrivains
du Jour.
s. U. C.

PIRBRIGHT, HENRY DE WORMS, BAR-
ON: English statesman; born in London 1840;
died at Guildford, Surrey, Jan. 9, 1903; third son of
Solomon Benedict de Worms, a baron of the Austrian
empire. He was educated at King's College, Lon-
don, and became a barrister in 1863. As Baron Henry
de Worms he sat in the House of Commons as Con-
servative member for Greenwich from 1880 to 1885,
and for the East Toxteth division of Liverpool from
1885 to 1895, when he was created a peer. He was
parliamentar}^ secretary to the Board of Trade in
1885 and 1886 and from 1886 to 1888, and under-sec-
retary of state for the colonics from 1888 to 1892.
In 1888 he was president of the International Con-
ference on Sugar Bounties, and as plenipotentiary
signed the abolition treaty for Great Britain. He
became a member of the Privy Council in the same
year. He was a royal commissioner of the Patri-
otic F'und, and one of the royal commis.sioners of
the French Exhibition of 1900. His works include:
"England's Policy in the East" (London, 1876),
"Handbook to the Eastern Question " (5th ed., Lon-
don, 1877), "The Austro-Hungarian Empire"
(2d ed., London, 1877), "Memoirs of Count Beust"
{ib. 1887).

In 1864 he married Fanny, daughter of Baron von
Tedesco of Vienna, and in 1887, after her death,
Sarah, daughter of Sir Benjamin Samuel Phillips.

Pirhe Zafon

Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Lord Pirbright was for several years president of
the Anglo-Jewish Association, but resigned in 1886
owing to objections raised to his having attended
the nuptials of his eldest daughter in a church.
During his parliamentary career he was a warm ad-
vocate of the cause of Jews in lands of oppression,
especially Rumania ("Jew. Chron." Jan. 16, 1903).

BiBLiOGRAPUT: n'/io's Who, 1903; Jewish Year Dnnk, 1903.
J. V. E.

PIRHE ZAFON. See Periodicals.

PIRKE ABOT. See Abot.

PIRKE DE-RABBI ELI'EZER: Ilaggadic-
midrashic work on Genesis, part of Exodus, and a
few sentences of Numbers; ascribed to li. Eliezer
b. Hyrcanus, and composed in Italy shortly after
833. It is quoted immediately before the end of the
twelfth century under the following titles: Pirke
Rabbi Eli'ezer ha-Gadol (Maimonides, "Moreh,"
ii., xxvi.); Pirke Rabbi Eli'ezer ben HjTcanus
("Seder R. Amram," ed. Warsaw, 1865. p. 32ci);
Baraita de-Rabbi Eli'ezer ('"Aruk," s.v. Dpip; Rashi
on Gen. xvii. 3; gloss to Rashi on Meg. 2'2b; David
Kimhi, "Sliorashim," s.r. iiy); Ilaggadah de-Rabbi
Eli'ezer ben Hyrcanus (R. Tarn, in Tos. Ket. 99a).
The work is divided into fifty-four chapters, which
may be divided into seven groups, as follows:

i. Ch. i., ii. : Introduction to the entire work,
dealing with the youth of R. Eliezer, his thirst for
knowledge, and his settlement at Jerusalem.

ii. Ch. iii.-xi. (corresponding to Gen. i.-ii.): The
six days of the Creation. On the first day occurred
the creation of four kinds of augels
Contents, and of the forty-seven clouds. The
second day: the creation of heaven,
other angels, the tire in mankind (impulse), and the
fire of Gehenna. The tiiird day: the division of the
waters, fruit-trees, herbs, and grass. The fourth
day: creation of the lights; astronomy and the
determination of the intercalation. The leap-year
reckoning is imparted to Adam, Enoch, Noah,
Sheni, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The fifth day:
birds and fishes; enumeration of the kinds which
may be eaten. The story of Jonah, which is said
to belong to the fifth day. The sixth day: God's
conference with the Torali in regard to the way in
which man should be created. Since God is the
first king of the world, all the great rulers are enu-
merated in order to refer to God as the first one.

iii. Ch. xii.-xxiii. (=Gen. ii.-viii., xxiv., xxix.,
1.): The time from Adam to Noah. The placing of
man in the Garden of Eden and the creation of Eve.
Description of the tliree evil qualities which shorten
the life of man — envy, lust, and ambition. Identi-
fication of the serpent with Samael. Announcement
of the ten appearances of God upon eartli (" 'eser
yeridot"). First appearance of God in the Garden
of Eden, and the punishment of the first pair. The
two wa3s, the good and the evil, are pointed out to
Adam, who enters upon his penitence. (The story
is interrupted here, to be continued in ch. xx.) De-
tailed discussion of the three pillars of the world—
the Torah, the 'Abodah, and the Gemilut Ilasiulim.
God's kindness toward Adam, that of the llananites
toward Jacob, and the con.sideration to be shown to

those in mourning. The literary quarrel between
the Shamniiiites and the Hillelites as to whether
heaven or earth was created first. The ten things
wiiich were created on Friday evening. Exegesis of
P.^lm viii., which Adam sang in the Garden of Eden.
Di.scussion of the Halxlalah blessing of the Sabbath
evening and the completion of Adam's penitence.
Cain and Abel; Cain's penitence. Birth of Seth;
the sinful generation. Story of Noah.

iv, Ch. xxiv. -XXV. (= Gen. ix., x., xi., xviii.,
xix.): The sinful generation. Nimrod. God's sec-
ond appearance. The confusion of tongues and the
Dispersion. Nimrod is killed bj^ Esau, who takes
his garments, which Jacob then puts on in order to
secure the blessing.

V. Ch. xxvi. -xxxix. (=: Gen. xl.,1.): From Abra-
ham to the death of Jacob. The ten temptations of
Abraham. Lot's imprisonment and Abraham's pur-
suit of the kings. God's covenant with Abraham.
Tiie circumcision, and the appearance of tlie angels.
Identification of Hagar with Keturah, and the story
of Ishmael. The sacrifice of Isaac. Isaac and Re-
bekah, Jacob and Esau. Proofs given by Elijah,
Elisha, and Sliallum b. Tikwah that the dead are
resurrected through the liberality of the living.
Those that will be found worthy to be resurrected.
From the sale of the birthright to the time when
Jacob left Beer-sheba. From Jacob at the well to
his flight from Laban's house. Repetition of the
three preceding chapters. Story of Dinah and of
the sale of Joseph. God's fourth appearance — in
the vision of Jacob while on his way to Egypt. Jo-
seph and Potiphar. Joseph in prison ; interpretation
of the dream; the sale of the grain. Jacob's bless-
ing and death.

vi. Ch. xl.-xlvi. (rrEx. ii.-iv., xiv.-xx., xxxii.-
xxxiv.): From the appearance of Moses to the time
when God revealed Himself to him in the cleft of
the rock. Fifth appearance of God — to Moses, from
the burning bush. The miracles performed by Moses
before Pharaoh. God's sixth appearance — on Sinai.
Pharaoh's persecution. The value of penitence;
Pharaoh is not destroyed, but becomes King of Nin-
eveh. Amalek's pursuit in the desert: Saul and
Amaiek ; Amalek and Sennacherib. The golden
calf; Moses' descent from the mountain; his prayer
because of Israel's sin. Moses on Sinai ; his descent,
and the destruction of the golden calf. Seventh ap-
pearance of God — to Jkloses,

vii. Ch. xlvii.-liv. (=Ex. xv. ; Num. ii., v., xi.-
xiii., XXV., xxvi.; in these chapters the sequence
thus far observed is broken): The sin committed at
Baalpeor. The courage of Phinehas. The priestly
ofiice conferred upon him for life as a recompense.
Computation of the time Israel spent in servitude
down to tiie exodus from Egypt. Continuation of the
story of Amalek. The passing over to Nebuchad-
nezzar and Ilaman. Story of Esther. Holiness of
the months and of Israel. Enumeration of the seven
miracles: (1) Abraham in the furnace; (2) Jacob's
birth; (3) Abraham's attainment of manhood (comp.
Sanh. 107b); (4) Jacob sneezes and does not die; (5)
the sun and moon remain immovable at the com-
mand of Joshua ; (6) King Ilezekiah becomes ill, but
recovers; (7) Daniel in the lion's den. Moses is
slandered by Aaron aad Miriam. Ab.salom and his

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pirhe Zafon

Pirke de-Kabbi Eli'ezer

death. God's eighth appearance — in punishment
of Miriam.

The Pirke appears, according to Zunz, to be in-
complete, and to be merely a fragment of a larger
work. Sachs, on the other hand, thinks tliat it was
compiled from two previous works
Com- by the same author, the relation of the

position, two productions to each other being
tiiat of text and commentary, the text
giving merely the story of tiie Bible, whicii was in-
terrupted by the commentary in the form of the
Haggadah, and the commentary being intended for
reading during the ten days of penitence. Horwitz
thinks that the author developed those Bible stories
whicli bore relation to the entire nation, dealing
lightly with those that concerned only individuals.

Jost was the first to point out that in the thirtieth
chapter, in which at the end the author distinctly
alludes to the three stages of the Mohammedan con-
quest, that of Arabia (niya XC'O). of Spain (D\T "'''N).
and of Rome ('nil i^Hi "|"I3 ; H80 c.e.), the names of
Fatinia and Ayesha occur beside that of Ishmael,
leading to the conclusion that the book originated
in a time when Islam was predominant in Asia
Elinor. As in ch. xxxvi. two brothers reigning
simultaneously are mentioned, after whose reign
the ^lessiah shall come, the work might be ascribed
to the beginning of the ninth century, for about
that time the two sons of Harun al-Rashid, El-
Amin and El-Mamun, were ruling over tiie Islamic
realm. If a statement in ch. xxviii. did not point
to an even earlier date, approximately the same
date miglit be inferred from the enumeration of the
four powerful kingdoms and the substitution of
Ishmael for one of the four which are enumerated
in the Talmud and the Mekilta.

The author seems to have been a Palestinian; this
appears not only from the fact that some of the cus-
toms to which he refers (in ch. xiii. and xx.) are
known only as Palestinian customs, but also from
the fact that nearly all the authorities he quotes are
Palestinian, the exceptions being R. Mesharshia
and R. Shemaiah. In no case can this work be
ascribed to R. Eliezer (80-118 c.e.), since he was a
tanna, while in the book itself the Pirke Abot is
quoted. Late Talmudic authorities belonging to the
third century c.e., like Shemaiah (ch. xxiii.), Ze'era
(ch. xxi., xxix.), and Shila (ch. xlii., xliv.), are also
quoted.

The following customs and regulations of the Jews
are referred to in the Pirke de-Rabbi Eli'ezer: Reci-
tation of Ps. xcii. during the Friday evening serv-
ices (ch. xix. ; comp. Shab. 118a). The blessing
"Bore me'orc ha-esh " (Praised be the Creator of the
tire) recited during the Ilabdalah (ch. xx. ; comp.
Pes. ;")9a). Contemplation of the finger-nails during
tiiis blessing (ch. xx.). After the Ilabdalah, pour-
ing of the wine upon the table, extinguisiiing the
candle in it, dipping the hands in it, and rubbing
the eyes (ch. xx.). Tiie prohibition against women
doing fancy-work on tlie day of the New Moon (ch.
xlv.). The blessing of "tal" on the first day of the
Passover (xxxii.). The sounding of the shofar after
the morning services in all the synagogues on the
New Moon of the month of Elul (ch. xlvi.). The
regulation that during the recitation of the "Kol

Nidre" on the Day of Atonement two prominent
members of the community shall stand beside the can-
tor (xliv.), and that on Tluirsday all
Customs worshipers must stand while reciting
Mentioned, prayers (ch. xlvi.). Tlie addition of
Deut. xi. 20 to the daily reading of
the"Shema' " (ch. xxiii.). The banquet after the cir-
cumcision (ch. xxix.; comp. Midr. Teh.,ed. Buber,
p. 234b). The chair of Elijali during the circum-
cision (cii. xxix.). The covering of the prepuce
with earth (ch. xxix.). The performance of the
marriage ceremony under a canopy (ch. xii.). The
standing of the hazzau beside the bridal couple (ch.
xli.). The pronouncing of the blessing upon the
bride by the hazzan (ch. xii.). The regulations pro-
viding that no woman may go out with uncovered
head (ch. xiv. ; comp. Ket. 72a); that the groom
may not go out alone on the bridal night (ch. xvi. ;
comp. Ber. 54b); that mourners must be comforted
in tiie chapel (ch. xvii.); that the dead may be
buried only in "takrikin " (ch. xxxiii. ; comp. M. K.
27a, b) ; that a person sneezing shall say, " I trust in
Thy help, O Lord," while any one hearing him shall
say, "Your health!" (ch. lii.) — sickness having been
unknown before the time of the patriarch Jacob,
whose soul escaped through his nose when he sneezed.
The following chapters close with benedictions
from the " Shemoneh 'Esreh": ch. xxvii. : "Praised
be Thou, O Lord, the shield of Abraham"; ch.
xxxi. : "Praised be Thou, O Lord, who revivest the
dead " ; ch. xxxv. : " Praised be Thou, O Lord, Holy
God"; ch. xl. : "Praised be Thou, O Lord, who
dost pardon knowingly"; ch. xliii. : "Praised be
Thou, O Lord, who demandest penitence." Chap-
ters xvii., xxx., xxxi., xlvi., li., lii., liv. also remind
one of the " Amidah."

The author dwells longest on the description of
the second day of Creation, in which the "Ma'aseh
Mcrkabah " (Ezek. i.) is described in various forms,
and although this passage recalls Donolo and the
Alphabet of R. Akiba, it is evidently much older,
since it does not mention the "Hekalot." This de-
scription is connected with that of the creation of
the seven planets and the twelve signs of the zodiac,
the reference to the "mahzors" and
The the " tekufot," and the discussion of

Tekufot. the intercalation. In the series of
years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19 in the
cycle of 19) in whicii the intercalation takes place
the author substitutes the fifth year for the sixth.
His cycle of the moon, furthermore, covers twenty-
one years, at the end of which ]U'riod the moon again
occupies the same position in the week as at tlie be-
ginning, but tills can happen only once in 689,472
j'ears, according to the common computation.

On tlie connection of the Pirke de-Rabbi Eli-
'ezer witli tiie Biraita of Samuel, see Sachs in "Mo-
natssciirift," i. 277. JManuscrijits of the Pirke are
found at Parma (No. 541), in the Vatican (No. 303;
dated 1509), and in the Ilalbcrslam library. Tlie
following editions are known : Cnn.<;tantinople, 1518;
Venice, 1548; Sabbionetta, 1568; Amsterdam, 1712;
Wilna, 1837; Lemberg, 1864. A commentary upon
it, by David Luria, is included in the "Wilna edition,
and another, by Abraham Broyde, in the Lemberg
edition.

Pirogov
Pisa

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bibliography: Zunz. G. V. pp. 283 et geq.; Jost, Gesch. des
Judenthum^ und Sdner Sekten. p. 35, note 2. Leipsic, 1858;
Senior Sachs, in Kerem Hemed, viii. 34; Ueher dojiGeijen-
Beitige Verh(Htnii<^, etc., in Mutialsschrift, i. 277; Tehiualt,
Berlin, 1850, p. U, note 5; p. 20, note 2; H. Kahana. In Ha-
Mauaid, viii. 6; S. Frledmann, in Ilahtner's J(J(J. Lit.-Blatt.
viii. 30-31, 34, 37 ; M. Steinschuelder, in Ha-Yoiialt, i. 17, Ber-
lin, 1851; R. Kirchheim, in hitmductin in Lilirum Talinu-
dicum de Samaritanis. p. 25, Krankfort-on-the-Main, Itol ;
Meir ha-Levi Honvitz, SlUhnat Habbi Eliezei\m Ha-Mag-
gid, xxiii., Nos. 8-30; Fuenn, Kene.'<ct YisraeU 1. 321-344, War-
saw. 1886 ; Israel Luria, in Knkehe Yizhak, xxv. 82 ; Israel
L^vi, in R. E.J. xviii. 83; Creizenach, in Jost's AtmaUn, li.
140; Gnitz, in MouaU'^chrift, 1859, p. 112, note 5; Bacher,
Ag. Tan. i. 122-123. Strasburg, 1903.

J. S. O.

PIROGOV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH : Rus-
sian physician and pedagogue ; born 1810 ; died Nov. ,
1881. He was professor at the University of Dor-
pat. As a statesman Pirogov belonged to that re-
nowned circle of men whose cooperation in educa-
tional matters was sought by Alexander II. in the
first years of his reign. His " Voprosy K Zliizni,"
in "Morskoi Sbornik" (1856), dealing mainly with
educational problems, led to his appointment as
superintendent of the Odessa school district (1856-
1858), and later to that of the Kiev district (1858-
1861). In this capacity he learned to know, for the
first time, the Jewish people; and as scholar and
seeker after truth, as the true friend of enlighten-
ment and the enemy of class antagonism, he treated
the Jews in a kindlj- spirit and displaj'ed unusual
interest in the educational problems concerning
them. His attitude toward the Jews is best shown
by the words which he addressed to the Jewish
community of Berdj'chev on his retirement from
the superintendency of the Kiev district : " You are
conveying to me the appreciation of my sj'mpathy
for the Jewish people. But I deserve no credit for
it. It is a part of my nature. I could not act con-
trary to mj' own inclinations. Ever since I began
the study of civics from the standpoint of science, I
have fejt the greatest antagonism for class preju-
dices; and involuntarily I applied this point of view
also to national distinctions. In science, in practi-
cal life, among my colleagues, as well as among my
subordinates and superiors, I have never thought of
drawing distinctions as prompted by
Friendly cla.ss and national exclusiveness. I
Attitude have been guided by these convictions

Toward also in my relations with the Jews
the Jews, when brought in contact with them in
private and public life. These con-
victions, the result of my education, having been
developed by lifelong experience, are now second
nature with me, and will not forsake me to the end
of my life."

This attitude of Pirogov, acknowledged by all as
a ])rominent man, was for the Jews of great social
moment; but aside from this he took an active part
in the development of Jewish education also. No-
ticing that the Jewish youth in the .search for en-
lightenment encountered obstacles on the part of the
Russian government as well as of the Jewish people,
tiie great mass of which was hostile to general edu-
cation, Pirogov made timely appeals to the Chris-
tians as well as to tlie Jews. Being familiar with
the methods of instruction in the various Jewish and
Christian schools, Pirogov, while superintendent of
the Odessa district, published a special paper on the

Odessa Talmud Torah in the "Odesski Vyestnik,"
citing it as an example for the Christian elementary
schools, and noting also the conscious efforts of the
Jews in the acquisition of knowledge. Further-
more, while still superintendent he published in the
Russo-Jewish journal " Razsvyet," in 1860, an article
on the necessity of enlightenment among the Jewish
masses; and he invited the educated Jews to form
an organization for the purpose, avoiding violent
and unworthy methods in the treatment of their
opponents. Pirogov also deemed it the duty of the
Russian public to lend its aid to young Jewish stu-
dents. " Where are religion, morality, enlighten-
ment, and the modern spirit," said Pirogov, "when
these Jews, who with courage and self-sacrifice en-
gage in the struggle against prejudices centuries
old, meet no one here to sympathize with them and
to extend to them a helping hand? "

There existed at that time Jewish government
schools which were very unpopular among the
Jewish masses owing to the manner in
Appoints which thej' were conducted; and Piro-
First Jew- gov devoted much work toward ma-
ish School king them really serve their avowed
Principal, purpose. His initiative and exertions
led, among other things, to the aboli-
tion of the rule under which only Christians were
eligible for appointment as principals of these
schools. In most cases the principals, coarse and
uneducated, were unfriendlj' to the Jews. Pirogov
appointed the first Jewish principal, U. S. Rosen-
zweig, one of the most eminent Jewish pedagogues
in Russia.

Pirogov rendered a further service of great im-
portance to the Jews by aiding those who wished to
enter the general middle and higher institutions of
learning, and in this connection he worked out and
presented to the ministry plans for the reorganization
of the Jewish schools, etc. His task was by no
means an easy one ; for at that time Pirogov was the
only patron of the Jewish youth. It is said that the
contemporary minister of public instruction meas-
ured the distance between the Jewish schools and
the churches.

Pirogov lent his aid particularly in the organiza-
tion at the University of Kiev of a fund for aiding
Jewisli students ; it was also he who
Aids Jew- took the first steps toward enabling

ish Stu- Jews to carry on their studies with

dents at government aid, to receive scholar-
University, sliips, etc. Guided by the same edu-
cational motives, while superintendent
of the Odessa district he advocated allowing the
publication of the first Russo-Jewish journal, the
"Razsvyet," and the Hebrew paper "Ha-Meliz."

Unfortunately Pirogov's efforts met with no sup-
port; his views on the education of the Jews evoked
no sympathy; and in the course of time access for
the Jews to the general schools became more difficult.

BiBi.iOGRAPHT: M. MorRulis, N. I. Pimanv, in Vnskhod, 1881,
No. 5; N. Botvinnik, VziiU/ad]! Pimudra na Vopras^i Pros-
vue^cheniun Ycvrcyci\ in Voahhod, 1903, No. 8 ; N. Bakst.
Pamyati Pirngova, in RxiiviUi Yevrei, 1882, No. 1 ; Sochine-
nlya, N. I. Pirogova, 2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1900.
II. R. *

PISA : Town in Tuscany, Italy, at the mouth of
the ]{iver Arno; formerly a port of the Tyrrhenian

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pirogrov
Pisa

Sea. The settlement of Jews in Pisa dates back to
very early times; the first mention of a congrega-
tion is n)et with in the "'Itinerary " of Benjamin of
Tudela, who found twenty families there {c. 1165).
The importance of Pisa as a commercial town ren-
ders it probable that the congregation continued to
exist; and this supposition is directly confirmed by
statutes of the republic issued during the thirteenth
century, which exclude Jews from giving evidence,
and command them to wear the Jews' badge. The
population, possibly envious of the trade of the
Jews, was hostile to them.

Some distinction was bestowed upon the congre-
gation by the settlement of the Da Pisa family, whose
members, by their eminence, education, and readi-
ness to sacrifice, were extensively and benevolently
active in behalf of the Jews. About 1400 Jchiel b.

and had become subject to the Medici, who, well
aware of the advantages wliich the state would de-
rive therefrom, permitted tlie settlement of Jewish
immigrants from Spain and Portugal. When, about
1590, the Medici opened the harbor of Leghorn, they
asked Jews to .settle there also; and in 15'J3 the
autiiorities of the congrega:ion of Pisa, to which
Leghorn was for the time being subordinate, were
granted the privilege of naturalizing foreign Jews.
The young congregation of Leghorn soon separated
from that of Pisa and outnumbered the latter consid-
erably. The Jews of Pisa fared as did those of other
Tuscan towns. They were obliged to live in a
ghetto, and were restricted in their rights; but iu
general they were treated kindly. With the en-
trance of the French, in 1798, the Jews were accorded
full citizenship. The Restoration of 1814 acknowl-

^2^

Old Tombstones from the Jewish Cemetery at Pisa.

(From a drawing by Albert Hochreiter.)

Mattithiah da Pisa founded a loan-bank in Pisa.
He represented the congregation at tlie Congress of
Bologna in 1415, and at Forli in 1418. His grand-
son, Jehiel, a MjEcenas of Jewish poets and scholars,
was a friend of Don Isaac Abravauel, who was as-
sociated with him and who while still in Spain laid
claim to his assistance for his oppressed brethren.
At the same time, Jehiel himself was in danger; as
elsewhere iu Italy after 1450, the Dominicans harassed
the Jews in Pisa; and in 1471, apparently during
the presence of Bernardin of Feltre in the city, an
assault was made upon their houses. Numbers of
fugitives from Spain and Portugal disembarked at
the port of Pi.sa, among them the Yahya family.
Isaac da Pisa, the son of Jehiel, took care of the fu-
gitives and assisted them to find new means of sup-
port. The same intentions guided also his nepliew,
Jehiel Nissim b. Samuel da Pisa, who, iu 1525, shel-
tered David Reubeni under his roof for several
months, and furthered his enterprises, from which
Jehiel expected much benefit for all Jews.

Pisa in the meanwhile had lost its independence

edged the independence of the congregation; the
ghetto was abolished ; and gradually the rights of
the Jews were extended; but only the establish-
ment of the kingdom of Italy (1861) brought full
equality.

Of rabbis and scholars in Pisa the following are
known: Jehiel b. Mattithiah da Betel (14th cent.);
Daniel b. Samuel Rofe b. Daniel Dayyan da Pisa;
Raphael b. Eleazar Meldola (1750) ; Jacob b. Moses
Senior; Eliezer b. Jacob Supino (about 1800); Judah
Coriat; and A. V. de Benedetti. Active at the uni-
versity were: Salvadore de Benedetti, the translator
of Judah ha-Levi; Alessandro d'Ancona, for many
years the dean; and Vittorio Supino, now (1905) also
rector. David Castelli was secretary of the Jewish
congregation in 1865. Pisa had temporarily a He-
brew printing-office in the eighteenth century.

In 1865 the Jews numbered 450; in 1901 there

were 500 in a total population of about 61,300.

BiBi.iORRAPMY : Ersph and Gniber, E)if{/c. section il.. part 27,
p. 151 : Ci>rricrc Israelitico, x., xi.; R. E. J. xxvl.; Mortara,
Indice, passim.
G. L E.

Pisa. Da
Pitisburgr

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PISA, DA : Italian family, deriving its name
from tlie city of Pisa. It can be traced back to the
fifteenth century.

Abraham ben Isaac da Pisa : Talmudist; son
of Isiiac ben Ji-hiel; lived in Bologna, where he died
in 1554. He was often consulted about religious
questions. One of his responsa is found in the col-
lection of Menahem Azariah da Fano, in which, de-
spite liis veneration for Meir ben Isatic K.\tzenel-
LENBOGEN of Padua, Abraham refutes the latter 's
arguments and expresses the wish that, for the sake
of harmony, the rabbis would agree upon one au-
thority in accordance with whose decisions religious
questions might be decided. A court banker, Abra-
ham suffered much from the exactions of the popes
during the Turkish wars, and consequently was in
straitened circumstances. Not being able to pub-
lish his responsa, he left them in manuscript, with
other works of his.

In the list of names in the archives of the Jewish
community of Rome for the years 1536 to 1542 is
found the name of Solomon da Pisa (see Vogelstein
and Rieger, "Gesch. tier Juden in Rom," ii. 419), and
among the prominent members of the community
during the period 1542-1605 were Abraham ben
Joseph and Moses ben Solomon da Pisa (ib. ii.
421). Two of the later descendants of this family
were Giuseppe Pisa (b. 1827, Ferrara; d. Milan,
Feb. 24, 1904) and his nephew Ugo Pisa. The for-
mer, a merchant and manufacturer, took an active
part in the revolutionary movement of 1848.

Other distinguished members of the family were
Jehiel (see Jew. E>'cyc. vii. 83) and Isaac ben Je-
hiel (for whose son Abraham see above).

Daniel ben Isaac da Pisa : Wealth}' and learned
philanthropist of the sixteenth century. lie was
called to the rabbinate of Rome during the pontifi-
cate of Clement VII., and succeeded in bringing
harmony into that community. He united into one
congregation the different elements, consisting of
Italian and foreign-born Jews, and instituted a coun-
cil of sixty members to administer the affairs of the
amalgamated congregation. The decisions of this
council were declared legal by a papal decree of
Dec. 12, 1524. While David Reubeni was at Rome,
Daniel da Pisa provided for his wants and served as
his interpreter before the i)ope. Through Daniel's
influence Reubeni received from Clement VII. letters
of recommendation to the King of Portugal and to
other Christian monarchs.

BiBLiof.RAPHT: Gratz. Gesch. ix. 248; Gedallah Ibn Yahya,
ShahheJet ha-Kabhalnh, ed. Venice, p. 6")b; Heilprln. Seder
h<uDoroU 1. 23«. 24-^.. Warsaw, 1883 ; David Kaufmann. in R.
E. J. xxvi. 81-96, xxlx. 146-147. xxxi. 6.5 et seq., xxxii. 130-
134 : Michael, Orha-Hayyim. No. 144 : II VessiUo Israeliticn,
1904, p. 10.5; Vopelsteln and Eieger, Gesch. der Juden iti
Rom, 11. 40. 44, 128.

D. 8. Man.

TJgo Pisa: Italian writer and senator; born
Aug., 1845. After taking part in the campaign of
1866 he studied law. In 1869 and 1870 he was at-
tached to the Italian consulate at Constantinople,
and was then secretary of legation in China, Japan,
London, and Berlin successively. In 1873 he entered
the Banca Pisa of Milan ; he was elected common
councilor, judge of the tribunal of commerce, coun-
sel and president of the chamber of commerce, and
finally senator (Nov. 17. 1898).

Pisa is the author of the following works: "As-
sicurazione Colletiva Contro gl' Infortunii sul La-
voro, ed Interveuto del Patronato Milanese per Fa-
cilitarne I'Applicazione," Milan, 1885; "Liberi Pro-
tezionisti e Socialisti," ib. 1892 ; in collaboration with
G. Fraschi, "Sulla Opportuuita di Dare Maggiore
Efficacia Practica all' Azione del Consiglio ilell' In-
duslria e del Commercio," ib. 1893; "Relation sur
la Prevoyance pour les Accidents de Travail en
Italie 1882-89" (in "Congr^s International des Acci-
dents du Travail et des A.ssurances Sociales i
Milan "), tb. 1894; " Delle Norme per Regolare il Li-
ccnziamento degli Agenli di Commercio," etc., ib.
1894 ; " Relation sur la Prevoyance pour les Acci-
dents du Travail en Italie " (in " Comite Italien de»
Sciences Sociales pour I'Exposition de Paris"), ib.
1899.
Bibliography : lUiuftrazione Italiana, 1898, part 11., p. 425.

s. U. C.

PISGAH (always with the article: Ha-Pia-
gah) : ^Mountain iu Moab, celebrated as one of the
stations of the Israelites in their journey through
that country (Num. xxi. 20) and as the place of one
of Balak's sacrifices {ib. xxiii. 14), but chiefly as the
place of Moses' death after he had beheld from
its summit "all the land of Gilead, unto Dan; and
all Naphtali, and the land of Ephraim and Ma-
nasseh, and all the land of Judali, unto the hinder
[western] sea; and the south, and the plain of the
valley of Jericho, the city of palm-trees, unto Zoar"
(Dent, xxxiv. 1-2, R. V.). It is identified (ib.
xxxiv. 1) with Mount Nebo; and in Num. xxiii.
14 the "field of Zophim " is the "top of Pisgah."
Under the " slopes of Pisgah " was the " sea of the
Arabah " or Dead Sea (Deut. iii. 17, iv. 49; Josh. xii.
3, xiii. 20, R. V.).

Pisgah has been identified also with the modern
Naba, a ridge which projects westward from the
plateau of Moab, near the northeastern end of the
Dead Sea, about five miles southwest of Heshbon,
and 2,643 feet above the Mediterranean and 3,935 feet
above the Dead Sea. It is described by G. A. Smith
("Historical Geography of the Holy Land," p.
563) as about two miles long, with a level top about
one-half mile broad. "It is of flinty limestone,
mostly barren." It commands an extensive view of
the whole of western Palestine. There are two
summits: the higher, Ras Naba; the lower and out-
ermost, Ras Siyaghah. The latter commands the
whole of the Jordan valley and is probably identical
with the " top of Pisgah which looketh down upon
Jeshimon " (Num. xxi. 20, R. V., margin).

The name "Pisgah " has not survived till modern

times, unless in "Ras Fashkah," a headland on the

opposite or western side of the Dead Sea. It is said

to have been still used, however, in the time of

Eusebius (in the form ^aayu; comp. LXX. 4>aa-)d,

<J>aff,va) for a district in that region (Eusebius,

"Onomasticon," ed. Lagarde, pp. 124-125, 237).

Bini.infiRAPiiY : G. A. Smith, JTMorical Geographu of the
Hull/ Land, pp. 502-.5()6 ; Tristram, Land of Moah, pp. 339-
:^40; Surveiiof Ea.'^teni Palestine, pp. 154-1.56. 198-203; Con-
d('r, Heth and Moah, 3d ed.. pp. 132 c( seq.; Driver. Commei>
tarn on Deuteronomy (xxxiv. 1).
E. r. J. F. McL.

PISGAH, HA-. See Periodicals.

PISTACHIO-NTJT. See Nut.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pisa, Da
Pittsburer

MAP OF
PJTHOa - lIEIiOOPOLIS

p ?Q 40 60 eo 100 _ _ ^9"* METRES

Q 20 40 fiO RO 100

ES£«f

PITHOM (DnS: LXX. nafltj. XiiBLii): One of the
cities whicli, according to Ex. i. 11, was built for
the Pharaoh of tlie oppression by the forced labor
of the Israelites. The other city was Raamses; and
the Septuagint adds a third, "On, which is Ileliop-
olis." The meaning of the term niJSDD ^"iy, ren-
dered in the Authorized Version "treasure cities"
and in the Revised Version "store cities," is not defi-
nitely known. The Septuagint renders ■K6lEiq bxvpai
"strong [or "fortified"] cities." Tlie same term
is used of cities of Solomon in I Kings ix. 19 (comp.
also II Chron.
xvi. 4). The lo-
cation of Pithom
was a subject of
much conjec-
ture and debate
until its site was
discovered by E.
Niiviile in the
spring of 1883.
Ilerodotus (ii.
158) says that
the canal made
by Necho to con-
nect the Red Sea
with the Nile
"passes Patu-
mos, a city in the
Arabian nonie."
This district of
Arabia was the
twentieth nome
of Lower Egypt,
and its capital
was Goshen
(Egyptian," Ko-
sen").

The site of
Pithom, as iden-
tified by Naville,
is to the east of
the Wady Tu-
milat, south-
west of Ismailia.
Here was for-
merly a group
of granite stat-
ues representing
Rameses II.,
standing b e -
t w e e n t w o
gods; and from

this it liad been inferred that this was the city
of Raamses mentioned in Ex. i. 11. The excava-
tions carried on by Naville for the Egypt Ex-
ploration Fund disclosed a city wall, a ruined
temple, and the remains of a series of brick buildings
Avith very thick walls and consisting of rectangular
chambers of various sizes, opening only at the top
and without any communication with one another.
These are supposed to have been the granaries or
store-chambers, from which, possibly, the army may
have been supplied when about to set out upon ex-
peditions northward or eastward. The city stood in
the eighth nome, adjoining that of Arabia; so that

the statement of Herodotus is not exactly correct.
It was known in the Greek period as Ileroopolis
or Ileroonpolis. The Egyptian name, "Pithom"
(Pi-Tum or Pa-Tum), means "house of Turn" [or
"Atum"], i.e., the sun-god of Heliopolis; and the
Greek word "Hero" is probably a translation of
"Atum."

The discovery of the ruins of Pithom confirms the
Biblical statement and points to Rameses II. as the
Pharaoh that oppressed Israel. The name of the
city Pi-Tum is first found on Egyptian monuments

of the nineteenth
dynastj'. Im-
portant evidence
is thus afforded
of the date of the
Exodus, which
must liave taken
place toward the
end of the nine-
teenth dynasty
or in the be-
ginning of the
twentieth dy-
nasty.

In the Middle
Ages Fayum
was called
"Pithom" by
the Jews, so that
the Gaon Saadia
is termed "Al-
Fayj'umi" in
Arabic (Hebr.
"Ha-Pitomi"),
and he himself
translates " Pi-
thom " in Ex. i.
11 by "Al Fay-
yum."

'f!mfm^^!^r^^^^^0

ROMAN CITY ^^ ^
HEROOPOLIS^ ^

..■•'"1. .j-> jP"

/SiW^-^^-Cs; J) E

'^WW

^ "--■••" -'^r — - 2^'"^"'-.: •■•"'••■-•: ■■"'■-■-

„ .7ts^.™< -., , ^M>"-* , "^ \«.. "" ,,1'* ■""■ %

*«t ■ .f-y ,«llllb

,„,,„jjiaaj]jjauiMMjto ^ •■■■•";::■• t ■■■;;::•■■■■■■■:.■.' ,:;,?■ :":•'•'.:: T ■"•-,»,•■--

'"'*'''•■■ ■'■■'" " BORMAV A CO., N.Y.

Bibliography: Na-
ville, T?!C Sttyre
Citu of Pithom,
etc., in Memoir of
Egiipt Explora-
tion PumI, 1885;
Sayce, Higher
Criticism an<ithe
J\/o;iHnif ;if.sl894,
pp. 2)9 et .teq., 2.50
ct iteq.: Driver, in
Hoparth's An-
thoritii and Ar-
chcroloau, 1899,
pp. &i ct ifcq., 61,

m.
E. c. J. F. McL.

PITTSBUBG : Second largest city in the state
of Pennsylvania. With Allegheny, the twin-city
on the north side of the Allegheny River, it is the
chief city of western Pennsylvania.

There are no reliable records of the beginnings of
the Jewish community; but it has been ascertained
that between 1838 and 1844 a small number of Jews,
mostly from Baden, Bavaria, and WUrttemberg, set-
tled in and around Pittsburg. These were joined
by others in 1847 and by still others in 1852, who
included in their numbers the founders of Jewish
communal life. The first Jewish service was held
in the autumn of 1844, while the first attempt at

Pittsburg'
Piyyut

THE JEWISH E^X'YCLOPEDIA

organization was made in 1847, when a mere hand-
ful of men combined with the hope of forming a
congregation. They worshiped in a room on Penn
street near Walnut (now 13th) street, having en-
gaged the Rev. Mauuheimer as cantor. They
formed also a Bes Almon Society, and purchased
a cemetery at Troy Hill. The congregational body
finally became known as "Ez Hajjim." It lacked
homogeneity on account of the varying religious
views of its members; ami divisions and reunions
took place from time to time until about 1853, when
a united congregation was formed under the name
"Rodeph Shalom." In 1864 a further division oc-
curred, the seceders chartering a congregation under
the name "Ez Hajjim" in 1865, and purchasing a
cemetery at Sharpsburg.

Congregation Rodeph Shalom first worshiped in

a hall over the Vigilant engine-house on Third

avenue, then in the Irish hall on Sixth street, and

in 1861 built on Hancock (now Eighth)

Congrega- street the first synagogue in western

tion Pennsylvania. In 1879 it purchased

Rodeph the West View Cemetery. In 1884 the

Shalom, synagogue was enlarged, but it was
subsequently torn down, and the pres-
ent building, under erection during 1900 and 1901,
vpas dedicated on Sept. 6 and 7 of the latter year.
Among the early readers and teachers of Rodeph
Shalom were Sulzbacher and Marcuson. In 1854
William Armhold took charge of the congregation,
remaining till 1865, when he went to Philadel-
phia. During his administration the congregation
erected the temple on Eighth street; and, in con-
junction with Josiah Cohen, he conducted a school
which was maintained from 1860 to 1868. From
1865 to 1870 L. Naumburg was teacher and reader;
and in his day the Reform movement was con-
siderably advanced. The first rabbi of the con-
gregation was Lippman !Mayer, who came from
Selma, Ala., in the spring of 1870. He success-
fully guided the congregation along advanced
Reform lines until his retirement as rabbi emeritus
in 1901. By that time he had seen his congregation
grow from a membership of 65 to 150. He was
succeeded (April 1, 1901) by J. Leonard Levy, the
present (1905) incumbent, who was called from
Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel, Philadel-
phia. In the past two years Rodeph Shalom has
grown considerably. Its present number of mem-
bers and seat-holders exceeds 400 ; and it is worthy
of record that on the day after the dedication of the
new temple (Sept. 8, 1901) the congregation con-
tributed a sum of money which not only liquidated
a debt of nearly $100,000, but left a surplus of over
§30,000.

Rodeph Shalom, which during the past sixteen
years has been presided over by Abraham Lippman,
has since 1901 issued, for the use of its members and
others: " A Book of Prayer " for the Sunday services;
"A Text-Book of Religion and Ethics for Jewish
Children"; "A Home Service for the Passover";
" A Home Service for Hanukkah " ; " The Children's
Service"; "Sabbath Readings" for each Sabbath of
the year; and three volumes of Sunday lectures.
The congregation distributes these Sunday lectures
weekly in pamphlet form to all who attend the serv-

ices, and also furnishes gratuitously a special edi-
tion to non-Jewish residents of Allegheny county.

The Ez Hajjim congregation worshiped for a time
in a hall in the Dennis block on Second avenue,
and in 1882 purchased its present building on Fourth
and Ross streets. It has prospered, and is an active
force in Jewish congregational and communal life.
Among its ministers may be mentioned : A. Crone
(1874-81) ; A. Bernstein (1881-91) ; F. Salinger (1891-
1897); Michael Fried (since 1898), the present (1905)
incumbent, a graduate of the Jewish Theological
Seminary of America. Ez Hajjim belongs to the
school of progressive conservatism, and now has
famil}' pews and confers the rite of confirmation.
It has inaugurated Friday evening services and
has a Ladies' Auxiliary Societj-, a flourishing re-
ligious school, and a growing alumni as.socialion.

Pittsburg is notable in American Jewish history
on account of the conference (see Jew. Encvc. iv.
215, s.v. Conferences, Rabbinical) held there in
1885, and is also well known as a generous supporter
of all national Jewish movements, notably the He-
brew Union College and the Denver Hospital.
Among the more prominent local philanthropic and
charitable institutions maybe mentioned the follow-
ing: (1) J. M. Gusky Orphanage and Home, with
the Bertha Rauh Cohen Annex. The Home was
founded in 1890 by Esther Gusky, in memory
of her husband, Jacob Mark Gusky. The Annex
was the gift in 1889 of Aaron Cohen in memory of
his wife, Bertha Rauh Cohen, the only daughter
of Rosalia Rauh and the late Solomon Rauh.
The Home has 63 inmates, an annual

Philan- income of about §10,000, and an en-
thropic As- dowment fund of $67,000. (2) The
sociations. United Hebrew Relief Association,
a union of the Hebrew Benevolent
Society and the Hebrew Ladies' Aid Society. It
dispenses §10,000 yearly, and has a sinking-fund
of §29,000. (3) The Columbian Council School, a
social settlement. It conducts a large number of
classes, public lectures, a library, public baths, a
gymnasium, etc. The bath-house was the gift of
Alexander Peacock. The disbursements are about
§6,000 annually. (4) The Ladies' Hospital Aid se-
curesand pays for hospital attention for the sick poor.
Ithasanannualincome of about §8,000, and isat pres-
ent endeavoring to erect a Jewish hospital. (5) The
Young Ladies' Sewing Society, which dispenses
clothing to the poor; income about §2,000 annually.

The Concordia Club fosters Jewish social life
in Pittsburg. The Council of Jewish Women
is represented by the Columbian Council. The
Y. M. H. A. has been reorganized, and gives
promise of great activity. The Independent Or-
der of B'nai B'rith has five lodges; and the Inde-
pendent Order of the Free Sons of Israel, the Sons
of Benjamin, Sons of Israel, and Sons of Abraham
have two each. There are two weekly papers, one
in English, "The Jewish Criterion," of which Rabbi
Levy and Charles II. Joseph are the editors, and one
in Judteo-German, the " Volksfreund."

The Jews of Pittsburg are prominent in the profes-
sions and in commerce. Donors to non-sectarian
charities include J. D. Beknd and Isaac Kaufmann,
the latter of whom in 1895 gave the Emma Kaufmann

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pittsburg
Piyyut

Free Clinic to the medical department of the West-
ern University. Among those who have held posi-
tions in public life are Emannel Wert-
Prominent heimer, select councilman and member
JeAvs. of the state house of representatives;
Morris Einstein, select councilman (15
years); Josiah Cohen, judge of the Orphans' Court;
E. E. Mayer, city physician ; L. S. Levin, assistant
city attorney. Isaac W. Frank is president of the
National Founders' Association, and A. Leo Weil is a
member of the executive committee of the Voters'
Civic League.

Since 1882 there has been a steady increase in the
number of Jews in Pittsburg, the new settlers com-
ing mostly from eastern Europe. Russian, Ruma-
nian, and Hungarian Jews have come in large num-
bers, and are beginning to display an appreciable
interest in public affairs. They have si.x synagogues
(whose rabbis include A. M. Ashinsky and M. S.
Sivitz), many hebras, and a number of small relig-
ious societies. The Pittsburg Jewry strongly sym-
pathizes with the Zionistic movement, liaving a
large number of Zionistic societies. The number of
Jewish inhabitants is estimated at between 15,000
and 25,000, in a total population of about 322,000.

Bibliography: History of Congregation Rode ph Shalom,
1899; articles in the Jewish Criteriori, 1901, and AinericaJi
Im-aclite, 1893.
A. J. L. L.

PIUS rV. (Gian Angelo Medici) : Pope from
1559 to 1565. He was a Milanese of humble origin,
and became cardinal under Paul III., through the
latter's relations with Gian's brother Giangiacomo,
who had made himself master of Sienna. Gian, who
enjoyed the pope's confidence, was clever, good-
natured, condescending, somewhat worldly-minded,
and in every way a complete contrast to the fanatical
Paul IV., after whose death he succeeded to the
papacy. This contrast appeared in the severity
with which he dealt with Paul's favorites. Al-
though he did not favor the Inquisition, he did not
dare attack it. He convened the Council of Trent
for the third time, and succeeded in having it
"brought to a satisfactory termination through the
ability of the president of his choice, Marone.

The Jews breathed more freely under Pius. It
■was due to his intervention that Emperor Ferdinand
canceled the edict of expulsion which had been is-
sued against the Bohemian Jews. He bettered the
condition of the Jews in Rome and in the Pontifical
States by changing and in part revoking the restric-
tions imposed by Paul IV., and by granting them
the following privileges: to lay aside the Jews'
badge when traveling, if they remained only for one
day in any place ; to enlarge the ghetto, and to open
shops outside of it; and to acquire real estate be3'ond
the ghetto limits to tlie value of 1,500 gold ducats.
The Jus Gazaka or Gazaga, of later date, rests
upon a decree to prevent the increase of rent in the
ghetto.

Pius ordered the restoration of account-books and
communal records which had been confiscated, and
pardoned all the trespasses committed by the Roman
Jews against Paul's decrees except murder, coun-
terfeiting, mockery of Christianity, and lese-majesty.
He even granted the Jews permission to print the
X.— 5

Talmud, though under a different name. His suc-
cessor, Pius v., followed in Paul IV. 's footsteps.

BiBLiofiRAPHY : (iralA Gem-h. Ix. -.m ; Joseph ha-Kolien, 'Emek
ha-Iinlui, pp. VM ct i<e(j.; David (Jans, .?c»ifl^i Dawid for the
year 1559; Uanke, GcKvh. der I'dpxtf, 1. 2(fi et ,se(/.; Stern.
Vrkundliche licitrUoi., p. 137 ; VoRelsteln and I!ie(?er, GcKch.
der Judcn in Horn, il. lOO et 8cq.; Zuuz, In Geiger'a WiisH.

Zcit. JUd. Tltcol. V. 40
n.

H. V.

PIYYUT (plural, Piyyu^m) : Hymn added to
the older liturgy that developed during the Tal-
mudic era and up to the seventh century. The
word is derived from the Greek term for poetry,
perhaps more directly from noiT/r^c. The author of
a piyyut is called "payyetan," a Neo-Hebrew form
derived from " piyyut." In midrashic literature the
word "piyyut" is used merely in the general sense
of "fiction" (Gen. R. Ixxxv.; Yalk., Dan. 1063),
while " payyetan " is used in the technical sense of an
autlior of synagogal poetry. R. Eleazar, son of
Simon b. Yohai, was called a student of the Bible
and the Mishnah, a payyetan, and a preacher (Lev.
R. xxx. ; Pcsik. 179a, ed. Buber; Zunz, "G. V." p.
380; ide7n, "S. P." p. 60).

The oldest piyyutim are anonymous. They were

written during the era of the early Geonim (c. 7th

cent.) and are embodied in the prayer-book. They

show an attempt at meter, and, as in

Historical some late Biblical poetical composi-

Develop- tions, the successive lines are often al-
ment. phabetically arranged. Examples of
this kind are found in the Sabbath morn-
ing prayer "El Adon, ha-Kol Yoduka," in the peni-
tential prayers "We-IIu Rahum" for Mondays and
Thursdays, and elsewhere.

The oldest payyetan known by name is Jose ben
Jose (ha-Yatom); his date can be fixed only from
the fact that he was known to Saadia, who quotes
him; but this merely proves that he lived not later
than 850. The next payyetan known is Yannai,
who is said to have been the teacher of the most pro-
lific and popular of the old payyetanim, Eleazar ben
Kalir. The latter's most famous successor was Saadia
Gaon, in the tenth century. From that time the pay-
yetanim become very numerous and are found in
all larger Jewish settlements, notably in Germany,
France, Spain, and Italy. Zunz (" Literaturgesch.")
counts over 900 names of payyetanim. It seems
likely that they were influenced by the troubadours
and the minnesingers, both in the writing of their
poems and in their musical settings.

In Germany in the eleventh century there were

Moses ben Kalonymus, Meshullam ben Kalonymus,

Simon ben Isaac, and Gershom ben

In Judah ; in the twelfth century Jeku-

Germany, thiel ben Moses of Speyer, Menahem

France, ben Machir of Ratisbon, Meir ben
Spain, and Isaac (the hazzan), Kalonymus ben
Italy. Judah, Eliezer ben Nathan (author of
the history of the persecutions during
the Crusades), Ephraim l)en Isaac of Ratisbon, and
Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn ; in the thirteenth cen-
tury Moses ben Hasdai ipn (of Tachau ?), Eleazar
ben Judah of Worms, and Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi.

In France Benjamin ben Samuel of Coutances
(11th cent.; Gross, "Gallia Judaica," p. 553), Yom-
Tob ben Isaac of Joigny (martyred at York in 1190),

Piyyut

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Rashi, and many of the tosatists, were liturgical
poets, as were Moses of Coucy and Abraham and
Jedaiah Bedersi.

In Spain, where Hebrew poetry reached the high-
est development, the best liturgical poets were Sol-
omon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi, and Abraham and
Moses ibn Ezra. A large number of others whose
names are famous in philosophical and Talm\idic
iit«rature wrote liturgical poems, as Joseph ben
Isaac ibn Abitur, Isaac Ghayyat, Judah ben Bileam,
Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda, and Isaac ben Reu-
ben of Barcelona; even Maimonidesis known as the
author of a few hymns.

lu Italy, where, according to some, Eleazar Kalir
had his home, there were payyetauim from the tenth
to the eighteenth century. According to Zunz, Sol-
omon ha-Babli of tlie tenth century lived in Rome
(" Babel " being a metonj^mic name for Rome). To
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries belong Isaiah
di Trani and Immanuel of Rome. After the four-
teenth, payyetanim became fewer, and their produc-
tions were rarely embodied in the official liturgy.
Generally their piyyutim were written to commemo-
rate some local event. Thus Baruch ben Jehiel ha-
Kohen wrote on the devastation wrought during the
time of the Black Death (1347) ; Abigdor Kara, ou the
persecution in Prague (1389); Samuel Scliottcn, on
the fire in Frankfort-on-the-Main (1711); Jacob ben
Isaac, on the conquest of Poscn by a hostile army
(1716); and Malachi ha-Kohen, on an earthquake
that threatened Leghorn (1742). The Thirty Years'
war (1618-48), also the Cossack persecutions under
Chmielnicki (1648), produced an extensive literature
of such piyyutim.

The piyyutim are of various kinds, according to
their theme, their place in the liturgy, or their form.
The Selihah, the penitential prayer.
Classifica- occupies the foremost rank and is
tion. most likely the oldest. The "We-Hu
Rahum," for Mondays and Thursdays,
was known as early as the time of the Geonim. It
was originally composed for fast-days, as were some
of the older, anonymous selihot: the "El Melek
Yosheb" and the various litanies, which are, in
parts, found in Talmudic literature; the "Abinu
Malkenu " ; and the "Mi she-'Anah." A common
theme of the selihot is the sacrifice of Isaac (see
'Akedah). Another regular feature of the peniten-
tial prayers is the confession of sins ("widdui"),
in which the initial letters of the successive lines are
generally in alphabetical order. The introductory
part is called the"petihah,"and the closing part the
PizMON, to which there is a refrain.

The hymns for holy daA's and some special Sab-
baths are more specifically called "piyyutim," or
often, wrongly, "yozerot." They are divided ac-
cording to their place in the regular liturgy. Those
that are inserted in the evening prayer (" 'arbit")arc
called Ma'arabiyyot ; those inserted in the first
benediction of the morning prayer are called Yozer,
from the benediction "Yozer Or " ; in
Special the second benediction, Ahabah,

Names. from the initial word of that benedic-
tion ; those in.sertcd in the benediction
following the Shema' are called Zulat, from the key-
words "En Elohim zulateka," or Ge'ullah, from

the benediction "Go'el Yisrael." Other names
taken from the characteristic words of the passages
in which the piyyutim are inserted are Ofan and
Me'orah. Kerobot (incorrectly Keroboz, i)Liiiaps
uudi-r French influence; Zunz, " S. P." p. 6o) is the
name of a piyj'ut inserted in the Tefillah proper (see
Keuobot and Siiemoneh 'Esueii). Anntlier name,
rarely used, for the same piyyut is Shib'ata, from
"shib'ah" (= "seven"), because the telillot for Sab-
bath and holy days consist of seven benedictions.
A special class of piyyutim is formed by the Toka-
hah (= "reproof "), penitential discourses some-
what similar to the widdui, and tiie Kinah for the
Ninth of Ab.

According to their poetical form there are to be
distinguished the Sheniyah, the stanzas of which
consist of two lines eutli ; the Shelish.it, consisting
of three lines; the Pizmon, already mentioned ; the
Mostegab, in which a Biblical verse is used at the
beginning of every stanza ; the Shalmonit, a meter
introduced by Solomon ha-Babli (Zunz, " S. P." p.
167; idem, "Ritus," p. 135). The poetical form was
originally acrostic, according to the alphabet in
proper order (3K) f^r reversed (p "iBTl) or in some
artiticial form (D"3^K)- In later times, beginning
with the eleventh century, it became customary
for the author to weave his name into the acrostic,
sometimes adding an invocation ; forinstance, "May
he prosper in the Law and in good deeds."

The days on which pivyu^im are inserted in the

regular liturgy are the holy days (including Purim

and the Ninth of Ab) and a number of Sabbaths

which possess special significance, as

When Piy- the Four Parashiyyot, including the

yutim Are Sabbaths falling between them (" Haf-

Recited. sakot"); the Sabbaths on which New
Moon falls; Hanukkah Sabbath; Sab-
bath Bereshit, when the first portion of the Torah
is read; Sabbaths on which the Scriptural reading
has some special significance, as when the sacrifice
of Isaac (Wayera), or the Song of Moses (Beshal-
lah), or the Ten Commandments (Yitro), or the law
of the Red Heifer (Hukkat) is read; and other Sab-
baths. The persecutions during the Crusades con-
stitute the theme of the "Zulat," on the Sabbaths
intervening between Passover and Pentecost. Spe-
cial events, as a circumcision on the Sabbath or a
wedding during the week, are celebrated by appro-
priate piyyutim. On this point the various rites, as
the Ashkenazic, the Polish, the Sephardic, the Italian,
those of Carpcntras and Oran, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, Worms, and Prague, and other prominent
old communities, differ very greatly, as they differ
also with regard to the pieces selected for the holy
days. In general, however, every minhag has given
preference to the works of local authors.

The natural development of the language intro-
duced into the piyyutim not only the Neo-Hebrew
words which are found in the prayers of Talmudic
times, such as " 'olam " in the sense of " the uni-
verse" (Biblical Hebrew, "eternity"), "merkabah"
( = " the divine chariot "), " hitkin " (— " to arrange "),
but also a large number of new words formed on
models and from roots found in Talmudic and mid-
rashic literature or arbitrarily developed from such
words as are met with in the works of the oldest

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Piyyut

payyetanim. Thus Jose ben Jose employs "shu'at
ketoret" (="the service of the frankincense") in
his ritual for the Day of Atonement (Landshutli,
"Siddur Ilegyon Leb," p. 507, KOnigsberg, 1875),
an expression the use of which has
Philolog- only a weak support in tlie Biblical

ical and " sha'ah " (comp. Gen. iv. 5). The
Dogmatic typical development of the mannerism

Charac- of the payyetanim is found as early as

teristics. in the works of Yanuai — for instance,
in his piyyut. f"i" Passover eve, em-
bodied in the Haggadaii and in the Ashkenazic
ritual for the Sabbath preceding Passover ("Az
Rob Nissim "). He uses by preference such rare
and poetical expressions as " zarah " (= " to call ") in-
stead of " kara," and " sah " ( = •' he spoke ") for " dib-
ber" ; and such midrashic allegorical designations
as "ger zedek " for Abraham, " Patros" for Egypt;
and he arbitrarily mutilates Biblical and rabbin-
ical words {e.g., flD^ta [="the camp"] from Dp'D
[Greek, rd^L^'], the Aramaic translation of "degel"
in Num. ii. 2).

The master in this line is Kalir, whose |*V1p y^ in
the kerobah for Sabbath Zakor (the Sabbath prece-
ding Purim) has become proverbial for its manner-
isms (see Erter, " Ha-Zofeh, " Vienna, 1864). No bet-
ter, as a rule, is its intrinsic worth as poetry. The
piyyut suffers from endless repetitions and from ex-
cessive attention to rime and the acrostic. One of
the most curious instances is afforded by the selihah
of Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn (12th cent.), beginning
"Ta shema'," and found in the Ashkenazic ritual for
the fifth day after New-Year. The author, who
shows a remarkable command of the Talmudic idiom
and a profound knowledge of Talmudic dialectics,
argues with God, in the style of the Talmudic dis-
course, to prove that Israel should receive far better
treatment at His hands, saying, " To every question
there is an answer ; only mine remains unanswered ! "

There are, however, a few noble exceptions, as
Judah ha-Levi's poems, notably his famous ode on
Zion, found in the liturgy for the Ninth of Ab, and
Solomon ibn Gabirol's hymns, as hiswonderful pen-
itential hymn " Shomamti be-Rob Yegoni " in the
Ashkenazic ritual for the Fast of Gedaliah. Abra-
ham ibn Ezra's religious poetry, while noble in
thought and grammatically correct, lacks the in-
spiration of true poetry.

Among the German and French payyetanim, Solo-
mon ben Abun of France (12th cent.) and Simon
ben Isaac of Worms (10th cent.) likewise may be
quoted as exceptions. While both poets labor
under the difficulties created by the customs of
acrostic, rime, and midrashic allusion, they display
deep religious sentiment and are free from that
mannerism which seeks distinction in creating diffi-
culties for the reader. Simon ben Isaac's poem
beginning " Atiti le-hananek," which serves as an
introduction to the kerobah for the Shaharit serv-
ice of the second New-Year's day (Ashkenazic
ritual), is a noble expression of trust in God's
mercy, not unworthy of Ps. cxxxix., from which
the author drew his inspiration. The ]iizmon
"Shofet Kol ha-Arez," by Solomon ben Abun (Zunz,
"Literaturgesch." pp. 311-312), found in the Ash-
kenazic ritual for the day preceding New-Year and

for the Shaharit service on the Day of Atonement,
expresses in profoundly religious tones the belief in
divine justice.

It seems, as has already been stated, that the
payyetanim, like the troubadours, conceived their
poetry as something that po.ssessed no
Opposition liturgical character in the strict sense
to of the word. The degree of approval

Piyyutim. with which these hymns were re-
ceived, or of personal respect which
the author, in many instances a local rabbi, enjoyed,
decided for or against the insertion of the pi3'yutim
in the Mahzou of the congregation. Opposition to
the inclusion of the piyyut in the regular prayer as
an unlawful interruption of divine service is found
as early as the eleventh century. Rabbenu Tam
(Jacob ben MeVr) defends the practise against the
objections of Hananeel and Hai Gaon (" Haggahot
Maimoniyyot," in "Yad," Tefillah, vi. 3). Jacob
ben Asher disapproves of the practise, quoting the
opinion of his father, Asher ben Jehiel, and of Mei'r
ha-Kohen. Still, in the fourteenth century the cus-
tom was so well established that Jacob Molln
(Maharil ; Hilkot Yom Kippur, p. 47b, ed. War-
saw, 1874), disapproved not only of the action of his
disciples, who preferred to study in the synagogue
while the congregation recited the piyyutim, but
also of any departure from local custom In the selec-
tion of the piyyutim and the traditional airs(Isserles,
in notes on Tur Orah Hayyim, 68; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Orah Hayyim, 619).

Other objections, from the esthetic standpoint,
and on account of the obscure and often blasphe-
mous language used, have been presented in a mas-
terly criticism upon Kalir's piyyutim by Abraham
ibn Ezra (commentary on Eccl. v. 1). These objec-
tions, against which Heidenheim endeavored to de-
fend Kalir (commentary on the ^erobah for the
Musaf of the Day of Atonement), were revived in
the earliest stages of the Reform movement (see
Zunz, "Ritus," pp. 169 et seq.). Indeed, as early as
the beginning of the eighteenth century dogmatic
objections to the piyyutim were raised, chiefly in
regard to addressing prayers to the angels, and to
certain gross anthropomorphisms (Lampronti, "Pa-
had Yizhak," 8. v. V3nV. pp. 33b et sf?.)— objections
the force of which some of the strictest Orthodox
rabbis, like Moses Sofer, recognized. (See Anthro-

POMOUPIUSM AND ANTHUOPOPATniSM.

The Reform movement resulted in the general
disuse of the piyyutim even in synagogues in
which otherwise the traditional ritual was main-
tained ; but in such synagogues and even in almost
all those which use the Reform ritual, some of the
most popular piyyutim for New-Year and the Day
of Atonement have been retained.

The verbal difficulties of the piyyut made com-
mentaries a necessity, so that even the authors them-
selves appended notes to their piyyutim. An ex-
haustive commentary by Johanan Treves was pub-
lished in the Bologna (1541) edition of the Roman
Mahzor. Of the later commentators none has done
more valuable work than Wolf Heidenheim, who,
however, limited himself to the Ashkenazic and to
the Polish ritual. He was the first, also, to write a
correct German translation of the whole Matizor, but

Pizmon
Flagrue

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

neither his nor Michael Sachs's translation succeed
in tlie almost impossible task of remaining faithful to
the original and producing at the same time a road-
able text in German. The same may be said of the
translations in other modern languages. An excep-
tion exists in the work of Seligmann Heller, who
succeeded in producing a really poetical veraion of
some of the piyyutim.

BiBLiOGRAPH V : 3X<itiJ<>r, ed. Heidenhelm, Introduction ; Zunz,
S. P.; idem, Lifirufuri/of/i.; idem, Ki'ttw; Gestettner, 3/af-
teach ha-Piju(im, Berlin, 18i<9; Weiss, Dor. iv. 2--»l-22t);
Landsbutb. 'Ammude ha-'Ahodah ; Fleckeles, Te.'ihuhali mc-
Aluitiah. \o\. 1., No. 1, Prajrue, 1K)9 ; Wolff, I>ic Stimmen
der Aeltesten und GlaubwUrdiostcn Rabbincn Ubci' die
Pijutim, Leipslc, 1857.

PIZMON : Hymn with a refrain ; usually the
chief poem in the scheme of selihot sung or recited
by the cantor and congregation in alternation. Of
the many etymological derivations suggested for
the word, " psalm " (Greek, rpaTifiSg) seems the most
likely. Others which have been offered find the
origin of the word in the Aramaic D|3 (lamenta-
tion), the Hebrew |Q (treasure; comp. Dn30). the
Greek Tzoir/fxa (poem), or the French "passemente-
rie " or German " posamentir " (embroidery).

Among the Sephardim any important hymn, in
parts of the service other than the selihot, con-
structed in metrical stanzas with a refrain, is termed
a pizmon. Such, for example, are AnoT Ketannaii
and 'Et Sha'are Razon. These and others like
them are distinguished by a special traditional mel-
ody. This is also the case with the chief pizmonim
of the Ashkenazim (comp. Bemoza'e Menxhiah;
YisRAEL Nosha' ; Zekor Berit); but several are
chanted to a general melody for such poems, for
which see Selihah.

On the use of the word " pizmon " among the Jews

of South Arabia, see "Berliner Festschrift," p. 12.

Bibliography: Aruch Completum, ed. Kobut, s.v. pcro,
wbere valuable material Is given.

A. F. L. C.

PIZZIGHETTONE, DAVID BEN ELIE-
ZER HA-LEVI : Italian Talmudist and physi-
cian ; flourished in the first half of the sixteenth cen-
tury. As physician he was active in Cremona; as
editor, in Venice. In the latter city he was em-
ployed in the Bomberg printing establishment, and
wrote an introduction to the edition of Maimonides'
"Yad ha-Hazakah " published there.

According to a statement of Landshuth, Pizzi-

ghettone was rabbi in Ferrara ; but this statement is

erroneous.

Bibliography : Mortara, Tndice ; I. T. Eisenstadt, Da'at ICe-
d(is:)iim. p. .58; Landshutb, 'Ammude ha-'Abndah, p. 343;
Furst, Bibl. Jud. lil. 106.
e. c. a. Pe.

PJURKO, ABRAHAM MARCUS : Russian

Hebraist and pedagogue; born at Lomza Feb. 15,

1853. After having studied Talmud and rabbinics,

he devoted himself to modern Hebrew literature,

publishing successively : " Bat Yiftah " (Lyck, 1873),

a Biblical poem ; " He'uyim ha-Debarim le-Mi slie-

Amaram" (Warsaw, 1880), criticisms on Bibliral and

Talmudical legends; "Sefer Miktabim ha-Shalem"

{ib. 1882), a Hebrew letter-writer, containing 150

specimens of letters on different subjects; "Nit'e

Na'amanim " (ib. 1884), 100 stories for tiie young;

"Kur ha-Mibhan" (ib. 1887), a book for teachers,

containing a Biblical catechism ; " Haskalah ^ledu-
mah" (ih. 1888). a sketch of Jewish life.

In 1893 Pjurko published eleven stories for chil-
dren, two of whicli were written by his son Hay-
yim, and in 1894 " Sliebot Sofer ha-Siialem," a new
letter-writer, also containing 150 specimens. In the
same j-ear he published " Yalkutha-Re'im,"a gram-
matical work in verse, and issued a new and revised
edition of his " Nit'e Na'amanim. " " Elef ha-Magen,"
a grammar for school courses, was published in
1898.

In 1899 Pjurko began the publication of the
weekly periodical "Gan Slia'ashu'im," in which, be-
sides numerous articles by him, two of his works
deserving special mention were published, namely,
" Ab le-Banim " (1899) and " Ha-Rab we-Talmidaw "
(1900). Tiic latter work consists of essays on gram-
mar. In addition, Pjurko has contributed to many
Hebrew periodicals.

II. n. B. Ei.

PLACE-NAMES : The geographical names of
Palestine are not so often susceptible of interpreta-
tion as the personal names, which frequently form
regular sentences referring to divine action (see
Names). The majority of place-names, probably,
preceded the Israelitish conquest, as is shown by the
fact that several of them have already been identified
in the name-list given in the Egyptian and Assyrian
monuments (see map, Jew. Encyc. ix. 486). Here
there are towns, like Joppa, Jerusalem, Gaza, Dor,
and Ajalon, which have had a continuous existence
under one name for over three thousand years. Even
of the compound names, some existed in the early
lists, showing that Abel, Ain, and Beth were used
from the earliest times to designate respectively
meadows, springs, and shrines.

Some of the names of places bear evidence of the
existence of shrines of local deities; thus, Beth-
shemesh and En-shemesh were devoted to the wor-
ship of the sun; Beth-anath and Beth-dagon to
Anath and Dagon respectively. Ashtart seems to
have been the local deity of Ashteroth Karnaim,
and it has been suggested that the various place-
names containing "rimmon" (En-rimmon, Gath-
rimmon, etc.) indicate a deity of that name, though
"rimmon " itself means "pomegranate." In a few
cases the indefinite term "el " is used, as in Beth-el,
Penuel, and Jezreel. It is uncertain whether these
places were named in honor of the Israelitish god or
of some Canaanite local deity.

In addition to such theophorous names there are
many which are derived from plants, as Beth-tap-
puah (the apple-tree) ; Hazezon-tamar (the city of
palm-trees; another name for Jericho); while Elira
and Elon imply the oak. Similarly, ]ilare-nainesare
derived from animals, as from the stag (Ajalon), the
gazel (Ophrah), the wild ass (Arad), the calf
(Eglon), and tiie kid (En-gedi). Bird-names are
more rare, Beth-hoglah (the partridge) being the best
known. The place Akrabbim was probably named
after the .scorpions which abounded there (for a
fuller list see Jacobs, "Studies in Biblical Archaeol-
ogy," pp. 101-103).

Some of these names occur in plural or in dual form,
as Eglaim, Mahanaim, Diblatiiaim; in tlie vocalized
text of the Bible, Jerusalem also has this form. In

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pizmon
Plague

the majority of cases, it appears this refers to some
duplication of objects — in the case of Jerusalem, to
the twin hills upon which it is situated. There are
a certain number of compound names conveying in-
formation as to the localities, as those compounded
with "en" (spring), e.g., Enrogel, En-gedi; with
"beer" (well), e.g., Beer-sheba, Beeroth; witii
"hazar" (village), e.g., Hazar-gaddah ; with "ir"
(town), e.g., Ir-nahash; with "kir" or "kiryah"
(city), e.g., Kir-Moab; and with "gath" (wine-
press), e.g., Gath-rimmon.

Natural features gave names to other places, as
the predominant color in Lebanon (white), or Adum-
mim (red). The size of a town gave rise to the
names Kabbah (great), and Zoar (small), while its
beauty is indicated in Tirzah and Jotbah. The
need of defense is indicated by the frequency of
such town-names as Bozrah, which means literally
a "fortified place," Geder, a "walled place," and
Mizpah, a "watch-tower."

Perhaps the most frequent component is "beth,"
implying, as a rule, a sacred shrine. This, however,
is sometimes omitted, as is shown in the case of Beth-
baal-meon, Avhich occurs also as Baal-meon, though
sometimes the second component is omitted and the
word reduced to Beth-meon. It has been conjectured
that the name of Bethlehem is connected with the
Babylonian god Lahamu. Especial interest at-
taches to the place-names Jacob-el and Joseph-el,
which occurred in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and
are supposed to throw light upon the names of the
Patriarchs.

Altogether, there are about fifteen hundred place-
names occurring in the Old Testament and Apocry-
pha, the majority of which still need philological
inquiry. Many names relating to places occur in
the Old Testament with specialized meanings which
are not adequately represented in the English ver-
sions, as Shefelah (the maritime plain of Phenicia) ;
so with Negeb (southern Judea).

Bibliography : G. B. Gray, In Cheyne and Black, Encyc.
Bibl.; G. Grove, in Stanley's Sinai ajid Palestine, pp.
479-534.

PLAOZEK, ABRAHAM: Austrian rabbi;
born at Prerau Jan., 1799; died at Bo.skowitz Dec.
10, 1884. In 1827 he became rabbi in his native
city, and from 1832 to 1840 he officiated at Weiss-
kirchen, in Moravia, whence he was called to Bos-
kowitz. In Oct., 1851, he succeeded S. R. Hirsch as
acting " Landesrabbiner " of Moravia, and in this office
he successfully defended the rights of the Jews, espe-
cially during the period of reaction. Placzek was
one of the most prominent Talmudists of his time,
as well as a successful teacher, and carried on corre-
spondence with eminent rabbis, in whose collections
of responsa his name is frequently mentioned.

Birliograpiiy: Die iVeKzeif, 1884, p. 483; G. Deutsch, In
Luah, ed. Epstein, Briinn, 1885.
s. ■ S. F.

PLACZEK, BARUCH JACOB: Austrian
rabbi; born at Weisskirchen, Moravia, Oct. 1, 1835;
son and successor of Abraham Placzek. In 1858 he
founded a high school at Hamburg, and two years
later was called to Brlinn. Since 1884 he has been
styled " Landesrabbiner " of Moravia, after having

had charge of that rabbinate as assistant to his father
from 1861. It is mainly due to him that only men
with an academic and theological training are ap-
pointed as rabbis in Moravia. Placzek is now (1905)
chief rabbi of Brlinn, a knight of the Order of Fran-
cis Joseph, and curator of the Israelilisch-Theolo-
gische Lehranstixlt at Vienna; he was likewise
founder of the Proseminar, witii which a cantors'
school is connected, as well as of a number of phil-
anthropic societies. He is an honorary member also
of several political societies.

Placzek has published, in part under the pseudo-
nym Benno Planek : "Gedichte" ("Im Eruw,
Stimmungsbilder," 1867), the novel " Der Takif,"
and other works, several of which have been trans-
lated into English, French, and Hebrew. He is
known also as a naturalist (comp. "Kosmos," v.,
vols. iii. and X.), his scientific works including: "Die
Affen," " Wiesel und Katze," "Der Vogelgesang
nach Seiner Tendenz und Entwicklung," " Vogel-
schutz oder Insektenschutz," "Zur Kliirung in der
Vogelfrage," " Atavismus," and "Kopf und Herz "
(an introduction to the study of animal logic).

s. S. F.

PLAGUE. — Biblical Data : Word which is
used in the English versions of the Bible as a
rendering of several Hebrew words, all closely re-
lated in meaning. These are: (1) "Maggefah"(a
striking, or smiting): Used in a general way < f the
plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians (E.x. ix. 3-4);
of the fatal disease which overtook the spies (Num.
xiv. 37), and of that which slew many of the people
after the rebellion of Korah (Num. xvi. 48-49), and
at Shittim because of idolatrous practises at the
shrine of Baal-peor (Num. xxv. 8, 9, 18; Ps. cvi. 29-
30); of the tumors which attacked the Philistines on
account of the presence of the Ark (I Sam. vi. 4), and
of the three days' pestilence which ravaged Israel
after David's numbering of the people (II Sam.
xxiv, 21, 25); of a disease of the bowels (II Chron.
xxi. 14-15), and, propheticallj', of a plague which
shall consume the flesh of the enemies of Jerusalem,
both man and beast (Zech. xiv. 12, 15, 18).

(2) "Negef," from the same root and with the
same general meaning as " maggefah " (a blow,
a striking): Used of the plague of Baal-peor
(Josh. xxii. 17), of that which followed the rebellion
of Korah (Num. xvi. 46-47), and with a general ap-
plication {Vj\. xii. 13, XXX. 12; Num. viii. 19). The
corresponding verb is used with the sense of " to
plague "in Ex. xxxii. 35, Josh. xxiv. 5, and Ps.
Ixxxix. 23.

(3) " Nega' " (a touch, a stroke) : Used of the last
of the Eg3'ptian plagues (Ex. xi. 1) and manv times
of leprosy (Lev. xiii., xiv., and xxiv., and generally
in I Kings viii. 37-38 and Ps. xci. 10). The corre-
sponding verb, in addition to a general use in Ps.
Ixxiii. 5, 14, is used of the plague which afflicted
Pharaoh and his house because of the wrong done
to Abram (Gen. xii. 17).

(4) "Makkah" (a blow, a wound): Used of the
plague which was due to the eating of quails (Num.
xi. 33), of tlie plagues of Egypt (I Sam. iv. 8\ and
more generally (Lev. xxvi. 21 ; Deut. xxviii. 59, 61;
xxix. 22; Jer. xix. 8, xlix. 17, 1. 13).

Plague

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDLl

(5) "Deber": Rendered "plagues" in Hos. xiii.
14; "murrain" (i.e., catlle-plague)in E.\. ix. 3; and
"pestilence" in Ex. v. 3, ix. 15; Num. xiv. 12, and
Hab. iii. 5.

E. c. J. F. McL.

In Rabbinical Literature : Commenting on

the words of Jethro, "For in the thing wherein they
dealt proudly he was above them" (Ex. xviii. 11),
the Talmud says: "The Egyptians were cooked in
the pot in which they cooked others" (Sotah 11a),
that is, the punishment was made to correspond to
their crime, on the "jus taiionis" principle. This
refers to Pharaoh's edict to the effect that all Jew-
ish infants were to be cast into the Nile, the Egyp-
tians being punished by the plague that turned the
water of the Nile to blood. Af the same time this
plague proved that the Nile was not a deit}' as the
Egyptians believed. Furthermore, the Egyptians
suffered to the full extent the evils of the plagues,
and did not derive any benefit, however indirect,
therefrom. Hence, the frogs died in heaps "and the
land stank"; while the " 'arob," which the Rabbis
say was a mixture or drove of wild animals (not
"a swarm of flies "), disappeared after the plague

ceased, and " there remained not one " ;

' ' Lex so that the Egyptians might not profit

Taiionis." from the hides of the animals, which

they might have done had the latter
died like the frogs. Two theories have been ad-
vanced for the plague of darkness, one of which
is that the plague was intended to hide the anni-
hilation of the wicked Israelites who, refusing to
leave Egypt, died there.

The period of each plague was seven days (Ex.
vii. 25); and twenfy-four days intervened between
one plague and the next. The ten plagues lasted
nearly twelve mouths ('Eduy. ii. 10; comp. Ex. R.
ix. 12). The order and nature of the plagues are
described by R. Levi b. Zachariah in the name of R.
Berechiah, who says: "God used military tactics
against the Egyptians. First, He stopped their
water-supply (the water turned to blood). Second,
He brought a shouting army (frogs). Third, He shot
arrows at them (lice). Fourth, He directed His le-
gions against them (wild animals). Fifth, He caused
an epidemic (murrain). Sixth, He poured naphtha
on them (blains). Seventh, He huiled at them stones
from a catapult (hail). Eighth, He ordered His
storming troops (locusts) against them. Ninth, He
put them under the torturing stock (darkness).
Tenth, He killed all their leaders (first-born) " (Yalk.,
Ex. 182; Pe.sik. R. xvii. [ed. Friodmann, 89bJ)."

Ten other plagues were inflicted on the Egyptians
in the Red Sea (Ab. v. 6; Ab. R. N. xxxiii. ; conip.

ed. Schechter, 2d version, xxxvi.), in

Plagues in the various ways in which Pharaoh

the and his hosts were drowned. R.Jose

Red Sea. the Galilean says: "The Egyptians

in the Red Sea sufl'ered fifty plagues.
In Egypt the 'finger 'of God was recognized by the
ten plagues; but at the Red Sea God's powerful
' hand ' was visible [Ex. xiv. 31, Hebr.], which being
multiplied by five fingers makes fifty plagues." R.
Eliezer multiplied these by 4, making 200 plagues;
and R. Akiba multiplied them by 5, making 250
plagues. Each adduced his multiplier from the

verse: "He cast upon them (1) the fierceness of his
anger, (2) wrath, (3) and indignation, (4) and trouble,
(5) by sending evil angels among them " (Ps. Ixxviii.
49). R. Eliezer does not count "fierceness of his
anger" (Mek., Ex. vi. ; comp. Ex. R. xxiii. 10; see
also the Passover Haggadah).

The order of the plagues in the Psalms differs
from that in Exodus. R. Judah indicated the latter
order by the mnemonic combination 3nX3 ll'l]) 1^1,
consisting of the initial letters of the ten plagues

as follows: nniN Ti2 ^ni*' im nny d^js vtisv dt

niTian (n30)1trn = (l) water turning to blood, (2)
frogs, (3) lice, (4) swarms of beasts, (5) murrain, (6)
blains, (7) hail, (8) locusts, (9) darkness, (10) slaying
of the first-born. The ten plagues are further-
more divided thus: three performed through Moses,
three through Aaron, three directly by God, and
one, the sixth, through Mcses and Aaron together
(Ex. vii. 17-x. 21; "Shibbole ha-Leket," ed. Ruber,
p. 97b).
E. c. J. D. E.

Critical View: In the majority of cases the

plague is regarded and spoken of as a divine visita-
tion, a penalty inflicted upon the individual, family,
or nation because of sin. Even the common disease
of leprosy is said to be " put in a house " by God
(Lev. xiv. 34). The exact nature of the fatal sickness
which attacked the people on more than one occasion
in the wilderness is a matter of conjecture, but there
can be little doubt that it was the bubonic plague
which destroyed the Philistines (I Sam. v. 6-12).

The calamities inflicted upon the Egyptians be-
cause of Pharaoh's refusal to let the people of Israel

go into the wilderness to observe a feast

Plagues of to Yiiwn are designated " plagues "

Egypt- (Ex. ix. 14, xi. 1). The narrative in

Exodus tells of ten such visitations.
According to the critical aualj^sis of the sources of
this narrative it appears that one, probably the ear-
liest, story (J) tells of seven of the ten plagues (viz.,
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10); another (E), of four, or possibly
six (viz.. 1, 3 [?J,7, 8, 9, 10 [?]); and the third (P),
of six (viz., 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10). P.salm Ixxviii. recalls
seven, and Psalm cv. eight, of these. It is possible
that one or more of the plagues may be duplicated
in the narrative as it now stands.

The first plague was the defilement of the river.
" All the waters that were in the river were turned
to blood. And the fish that was in the river died "
(Ex. vii. 21). The Egyptians regarded tlie Nile as
a god (seeMaspero, "Dawn of Civilization," pp. 36-
42), and no doubt, to the Hebrew writer, this visita-
tion seemed peculiarly appropriate. Tiie water of
the Nile regularly becomes discolored from minute
organisms or from decaying vegetable matter and
mud carried down by the floods which reach Egypt in
June. The color is said to vary from gray -blue to
(lark red. A cause of this plague might therefore
be found in the presence of an unusually large
quantity of such impurities, making the water

putrid. The second plague was a

Details of multitude of frogs. The third and

Plagues, fourth consisted of swarms of insect

pests, probably stinging flies or gnats.
The fifth was a murrain, or cattle-plague, probably
anthrax or rinderpest. Pruner ("Krankheiten des

I; ■

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■f

crw

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lifnp I'm T* |3^' '

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■L lU. 1*,!!. . -.7i'ir-,i

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112

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p^? If)? <rfi !'/» ■n

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'21

The Ten Plagues, Accordixq to a Passover Hagoadah of 1695.

(From the Sulzberger collection In the Jewish Theological Semlotr; of Amerlcs, New York.)

Plants

THE JEWISH E^X^YCLOPEDIA

Orients," Erlangen, 1847) describes an outbreak of
the last-named in Egypt in 1842.

The si.\tli plague was one of boils which Philo (" De
Vita Moysis") describes as a red eruption in which
the spots became swollen and pustular, and in which
"the pustules, confluent into a mass, were spread
over the body and limbs." This description, if cor-
rect, would point to smallpox. The seventh plague
was a great storm of hail ; the eighth, a swarm of
locusts destroying the crops and even the leaves and
fruit of the trees. The ninth was a "thick dark-
ness " continuing for three days. It has been sug-
gested that such a darkness might have been caused
by the south or southwest wind, which blows about
the time of the vernal equinox, bearing clouds of
sand and fine dust that darken the air (see
Denon, "Voyage dans I'Egypte," p. 286, Paris,
1802); this wind blows for two or three days at a
time. The tenth and last plague was the destruc-
tion of the first-born, when Yhwh "gave their life
over to the pestilence and smote all the first-born of
Egypt" (Ps. Ixxviii. 50-51).

Bibi,io(;raphy : Dilimann-Ryssel, Exodus und Leviticus,
Lelpsic, 1897; Pruner, Krnhkheiten des Orients, Erlangen,
1847; A. Macalister, Medicitie and Plague, in HastiDRs,
Diet. Bible.
E. c. J. F. McL.

PLANTS.— In the Bible : The following names
of plants and plant materials are found in the Old

Testament:

[The plant-names in this table follow the order of the Hebrew
alphabet, but are transliterated according to the system adopted
by The Jewish Encyclopedia.]

Hebrew Name.

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

Ebeh

AbaUihim (plu-
ral).

Abiyyonali

Egoz

Agam, agmon..

Atialim, abalot
(pl).

Orot

Cyperus Papyrus, Linn. (?)....
CitruUus vulgaris, Schrad

fruit of Capparis spinosa, Linn.

Juglans regia, Linn

Juncus, Arundo. Phragmites. .
Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb.

(Gildemeister and Hoffmann,

" Die Aetherischen Oele," p.

64.=), note).

Eruca satlva. Lam. (?)

Origanum Maru, Linn

Cyperus Papyrus, Linn

Lyclum europsEum, Linn

Pistacia Terebinthus, var. Pal-

aestina, Engl.
Quercus

Papyrus (?).
Watermelon.

Thorny caper.
Walnut.
Rush, reed.
Aloes-wood.

Ezob

Wild marjoram.
Papyrus.

Ahu, gome

Atad

Elah (see zori)..

Allah, allon

Algummim, al-

Terebinth.

Oak.
Sandalwood (?).

mugglm (pl.).
Erez

Cedrus Libanl

a conifer, Pinus or Abies

Tamarix Syrlaca, Bolss.,orTa-
marix articulata, Vahl.

Cfiiar of T<pha-

Oren

non.
Pine or fir

Eshel

3
Bo'shah

Stinkweed (?).

Pistachio.
In the Mishnah
a sort of fruit.
Onion

Bedolah

Botnlm (pl.)...
Beka'lm

Bezallm (pl.)...

gum of the Balsamodendron

Mukul, Hooker,
fruit of Pistacia vera, Linn.. . .
mulberry

Allium Cepa, Linn

Barkanlm

Berr^h, berot. . .
Borlt

Phicopappus s'-oparlus, Sleb.. .
Abies Cilicica, Ant. and Ky . . .
vegetable lye of Mesembryan-

themum, Sallcomia, Alzoon.

etc.
Balsamodendron Opobalsa-

mum, Kunth.
not a plant, but erroneously

Identlfled by Wellhauscn and

Kautzschwith Malabathrum.

Coriandrum sativum, Linn

Pha^opappus.
Cilician spruce.

Basam, bosem..
Beter

J
Gad

Coriander.

Hebrew Name.

Galgal

Gome (see ahu) .

Gefen

Gefensadeh(see

pakku'ot).
Gofer'

Duda'lm (pl.).

Dohan

Dardar

n
Hobnim .
Hadas ...

Zayit.

Habazzelet . . .

Hedek
Hoah.".

Hittah . . . .
Helbenah .
Hallamut ,

Hazir..
Haful ..
"i'izhar .

Kammon..
Kussemet .

Kofer

Karkom...

Libneh ..
Lebonah ,

Luz (see sha

ked).
Lot

La'anab.

Malluah.
Mor

J
Nahalollm(pl.),

Nahal (see ta-
iiiar).

Nataf

Nekot

Na'azuz.
Nerd....

Suf.
Sir.

Sillon (pl. sallo-
. nlm).
Seneh

Botanical Name.

Popular Name,

(prototype) Plantago Cretica,. rolling balls of

Linn., Gundelia Tournefor-
tii, Linn., Centaurea myrio-
cephala, Schrad., and others
(Fonck, "Streifziige," etc.,
p. 87; Kerner, " Pflanzenle-
ben." il. 787).

dry weeds,
"witch-balls."
as explained
by Bar He-
bneus on Ps.
Ixxxiii. 14.

Vitis vinifera, Linn 'Grape-vine.

Cupressus Cypress.

Mandragora offlcinarum, Linn. Mandrake.
Andropogon Sorghum, Linn.. .Bread, durra.
a thistle, especially Centaurea Star-thistle.
Calcitrapa, Linn., and others.

Ebony.
Myrtus communis, Linn j Myrtle.

Olea Europaea, Linn Olive.

Colchicum, especially Colchi-

cum Steveni, Kuntli.

Solanum coapulans, Forsk

probably Echinops viscosus.

DC: perhaps Acanthus Syri-

acus, Linn.

Triticum vulgare, Linn.

resin of Ferula galbaniflua,

Boiss. and Buhse.
Anchusa, Linn

Allium Porrum, Linn.

Lathyrus, Linn

figurative for " zayit "

Meadow-
saffron.
NlghtvShade.
j According to

tradition, a

fodder for

camels.
Cultivated

wheat.

Bugloss or alka-

net.
Leek.
Vetchllng.
Olive.

Cuminum Cyminum, Linn..

Triticum Spelta. Linn

Lawsonia alba, Lam

root of Curcuma longa, Linn.
(sic).

Populus alba, Linn

from Boswellia Carteria, Bird-
wood, and others.

mastic isic) of Pistacia Len-

tiscus, Linti.
Artemisia monosperma, Delile,

Artemisia Judaica, Linn.

Atrlplex Halimus, Linn

especially from Commiphora
Abyssinica, Engl., and Com-
miphora Schiniperi. Engl,
(according to Holmes, per-
haps Coiniiiiphiira Kataf,
Engl., Balsamodendron Ka-
fal, Kunth : see Gildemeister
and Hoffmann, I.e. p. 639
Schweinfurth. " Berichte der
Deutschen Pharmacologisch-
en Gesellschaft," iii. 237.
cited by Gildemeister and
Hoffmann, I.e. p. 637).

according to Saadia, Prosopls
Stephanlana, Willd.

resin of Styrax officinalis, Linn,
tragacanth of Astragalus gum-

mifer, Labill., and others.
a prickly plant, which can not

be identified with certainty.
Nardostachys Jatamansi, DC.

Juncus

Poterium splnosum, Linn {?).

Rubus sanctus, Schreb.

Cumin.
Spelt.
Henna.
Turmeric.

White poplar.
Frankincense.

Absinth.

Orach.
Myrrh.

Storax.

Varieties of as-
tragalus.
AlhagiC?).

Spikenard.

Rush.

Thorny bumet;
perhaps, also,
other thorn-
bushes.

Thorn, thorn-
bush.

Blackberry.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

Hebrew Name.

SIrpad

'Adashim (pi.),
'Ez shemen —

'Arabah.

'A rot, consid-
ered by the
LXX. as iden-
tical with
"ahu."

'Armon

'Ar'ar

Botanical Name.

according to Ibn Janah, Atra-
phaxis spinosa, Linn.; ac-
cording to Jerome, Urtica,
I.lnn.

Lens esciilenta, Mnch

Eheagnus hortensis, M. Bleb.
CO, Finns Halepensis, Mill.
(V).

Populus Euphratica, Ollv

Pol.

Pannag

Paklfu'oKpl.).

Plshtah.

ze-

Ze'ellm

Zinnim (pi
ninim).

Zafzafah

Zori (see elah).

I'
^iddab, ke
zi'ah.

Ktiz

Kikayon

Platanus orlentalis, Linn

Juniperus oxycedrus, Linn —

Vlctafaba. Linn., probably also
Vigna Sinensis, var. sesqui-
pedalis, Linn.

Panicum mlliaceum, Llnn.(?).

Citrullus Colocyntnis (Linn.),
Schrad.

Linum usitatlsslmum, Linn. . .

Zizyphus spina-ChristI, Linn...

Popular Name.

Atraphaxis, or
nettle.

Lentil.
Pine.

Euphrates pop-
lar.

Plane-tree.
Juniper.

Horse-bean,
bean.

Salix safsat, Forsk

resin of Pistacia Tereblnthus,
var. PalEestina, Engl., but,
according to Jewish tradi-
tion, resin of Commiphora
Kafaf, Engl. (Balsamoden-
dron Kafal, Kunth).

varieties of Cinnamomum Cas-
sia, Bl.

Millet.
Bitter
ber.
Flax.

cucum-

Ricinus communis, Linn.

Klmmos.
5aneh. . .

Keneh bosem
' and kaneh ha-
tob. ■

Urtica, Linn (?)

Arundo Donax, Linn., and

Phragmites communis, Trin.

Acorus Calamus, Linn

Klnnamon

Kezah

Klshshu'im (pi.)

-\
Rosh

Rim men
Rotem . . .

Sorah (same as
dohan [?]).

Siah

Sikkim(pl.)....

Se'ora

Shum

Shoshannah,
shushan.

Shittah

Shayit (?).

Shamir

Shaked, luz . . ,

Shikmah . . .
n

Te'enah

Te'ashshur
Tidhar

Christ's-thorn.
Thorn-hedge,

thorns.
Willow.
Terebinth.

Cassia.

Thorn-bush.
Common castor-
oil plant.
Nettle.
Reed.

Cinnamomum Zeylanlcum,

Breyne.

Nigella sativa, Linn

Cucumis Chate, Linn., and Cu-

cumis sativus, Linn,
according to Post, Citrullus

Colocynthus (Linn.), Schrad.

(see pakku'ot), but this is

very doubtful).

Punica Granatum, Linn

Retama Raetam (Forsk.), Web.

Artemisia, Linn

Hordeum, Linn

Allium sativum, Linn...
Lllium candidum, Linn.

Acacia Nilotica,Del.,and
others.

Paliurus aculeatus, Linck (?)
Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes

(Amygdalus communis,

Linn.).
Ficus Sycomorus, Linn

Tamar, and pos-
sibly also na-
hal.

Tappuah

Tirzah .'.

Ficus Carica, Linn

Cupressus sempervirens, Linn
according to the Targ., Comiis

mas,Linn.,orComus Austra

lis. Cam.
Phoenix dactyllfera, Linn

Calamus (Gilde-
meister and
Hoffmann, I.e.
p. 384).

Cinnamon-
bush.

Nutmeg-flower.

Cucumber.

Pomegranate.
Juniper-bush.

Wormwood.

Brambles.

Barley.

Garlic.

Lily.

Acacia.

Garland-thom.
Almond.

Sycamore.

Mains communis, Desf .

(1) according to Saadia and
Ibn Janah, Pinus Halepensis.
Mill.; (2) according to the
Vulgate, Ilex, either Quercus
Ilex, Linn., or Quercus coc-
cifera, Linn.

Fig.

Cypress.
Cornel, do g-
wood.

Palm.

Apple.

(1) Pine; (2) oak.

In the Apocrypha : In the Apocryphal books

tlie following pjiints and plant-products are men-
tioned: vine, palm, lig, olive-tree, mulberry-tree
(pomegranate), wheat, barley, pumpkin, rush, reed,
grass, cedar, cypress, terebinth, mastic, holm-oak,
rose, lily, ivy, hedge-thorn, spices, cinnamon, aspal-
athus, myrrh, galbanum, stacte, and incense. The
rose and ivy are mentioned in the Mishnah also;
but they do not occur in the Hebrew Old Testa-
ment.

The rose-plant of Jericho, mentioned in Ecclus.
(Sirach) xxiv. 14, has been identified, through over-
hasty speculation, with Anastatica Ilierochuntica,
which, however, is not found in that district. This
Anastiiticn is frequently used by the Christians as a
symbol, while the modern Jews have frequently
mentioned it in their poetry. The Asteriscua pyg-
mcBus, Coss., which grows at Jericho, also has been
regarded as the rose of Jericho. The branches of
the Anastatica bend inward when the fruit becomes
ripe, so that the numerous closed, pear-shaped pods,
found at the ends of the branches, seem to be sur-
rounded by a lattice. In the case of the Asteriscua,
on the other hand, after the time of ripening it is
not the branches, but the top leaves, grouped in
rosettes, which close over the fruit (Robinson,
"Palastina," ii. 539; Sepp, "Jerusalem und das
Heilige Land," i. 610; Post, "Flora of Syria, Pales-
tine, and Sinai," p. 67; Kerner, "Pflanzenleben,"
ii. 783).

In Philo and Josephus : Philo gives no addi-
tional iufonnatiou regarding the knowledge of bot-
any possessed by the Jews in antiquity. It is true
that he made allegorii al use of grass and flowers,
wild trees and those t.-^at bear fruit, the oak, the
palm, and the pomegrmate, incense, and the tree of
life (Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria," pp. 185
et seq., Jena, 1875), but he wrote neither on botany
nor on agriculture (Meyer, "Gesch. der Botanik," ii.
80). Josephiis, on the other hand, deserves special
mention, since he was the only author in Jewish an-
tiquity who attempted to describe a plant in exact
detail. He says, in his discussion of the head-dress
of the high priest (" Ant." iii. 7, § 6) : " Out of which
[the golden crown] arose a cup of gold like the herb
that we call 'saccharus,' but which is termed
'hyoscyamus' by the Greeks." The form aoKxapov
is the Greek transliteration of the Aramaic " shak-
runa," which is not mentioned again until it is named
in the medical work ascribed to Asaph ben Bere-
CHiAH. The next description of the plant is given
in Hebrew by Azariah dei Rossi ("Me'or 'Enayim,"
ch. xlix.). Josephus describes it from personal
observation and shows a very clear knowledge of the
peculiarities of the plant. In describing it he men-
tions the ptjKcn', or poppy, for the first time in Jew-
ish literature, as well as the plants ei^u/iov (rocket),
(iowiaq, and ai^iipinq. He is likewise the first to refer
to the chick-pea in 'epe'^ivOuv o'tKOi ("B. J." v. 12,
§ 2), the vetch (" karshinna " ; Vicia Ervilia, Linn. ;
5po/3of, ib. V. 10, § 3), the fenugreek {Ti-igonella
Famim-Qmcum, Linn. ; r^P/c, ib. iii. 7, § 29), the
amomum ("Ant." xx. 2, § 3) growing near Carrhne,
and the laurel- wreaths of the Romans {6d<pvT], "B. J."
vii. 5. § 4).
The second specifically botanical reference is to

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the -ijyavov, a lue of extraordinary size growing in

the precincts of tlie palace at Macharus. The rue is

mentioned by Josephus (" B. J. " vii. 6,

Plants § 3) for the first time among Jewish

First Men- writers, though it occurs also in Luke

tioned by xi. 42. Later the Greek name appears

Josephus. as a foreign word in the Mishnah. The
rue at Macha?rus was equal to any fig-
tree in height and breadth, and according to tradition
it had been standing since the time of Herod ; the
Jews cut it down when they occupied this fortress.
The valley bounding the city on the north, Josephus
continues, is called Ba'arah (my3; Epstein, "Mi-
Kadmoniyyot," p. 108), and produces a marvelous
root of the same name. " It is a flaming red, and
shines at night." Then follows the popular de-
scription of a magic root that can be drawn from
the earth only by a dog, which loses its life thereby.
^Elian {c. 180) repeals the tale; but a picture in the
Vienna manuscript of Dioscorides, made in the fifth
centurj-, is the earliest proof that this mysterious
root was supposed to be the mandragora or man-
drake (Ferdinand Cohn, in " Jahresbericht der
Schlesischen Gesellschaft filr Vaterlitndische Cul-
tur," botanical section, 1887, 27, x. ; " Verhaudlungen
der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft," 17, x.
[1891] 730; 19, xii. 749. Instead of a dog, an ass
pulls out the root according to Midr. Agada, ed.
Buber, on Gen. xlix. 14. On the human form of the
mandrake see Ibn Ezra on Cant. vii. 14; Salfeld,
"Hohelied," p. 72. The popular belief regarding
the mandragora is given in full by Judah Hadassi
[1148] in "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 152c; Maimonides,
"Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235; Giide-
mann," Gesch."iii. 129; GrUnbaum, " jQdisch-Deut-
sche Chrestomathie," p. 176).

Josephus was also the first to mention the so-called

Sodom-apple, Calotropis procera, Willd. (Post, I.e.

p. 526), describing it as a fruit exactly resembling

edible apples in color, but composed only of ashes,

and crumbling in the hand to dust

The (" B. J. " iv. 8, § 4). He speaks highly

Sodom- also of the fruitfulness of Palestine,

Apple. mentioning particularly the palms
("Ant." iv. 6, § 1; " B. J." i. 6, § 6;
iii. 10, § 8; iv. 8, §§ 2, 3, 4) and balsam at Jericho
("Ant." xiv. 4, § 1 ; xv. 4, § 2) and Engedi (ib. ix. 1,
§ 2), as well as the palms at Phasaelis, Archelais (ib.
xviii. 2, § 2), and Persea ("B. J." iii. 3, § 3). The
balsam-tree was introduced by the Queen of Sheba,
and was afterward planted ("Ant." viii. 6, § 6) and
tapped ("B. J." i. 6, § 6). At Jericho the cypress
(/ciTrpof, ib. iv. 8, § 3) and the fxvpojid'kavoq {ib. iv. 8,
t5 3) also grew. In Pera?a, furthermore, there were
fruitful places where olive-trees, vines, and palms
flourished (/6. iii. 3, ^ 3), but the fruits of Gennesaret
surpassed all {ib. iii. 10, § 8, a statement which is
confirmed by the Talmud).

Naturally every recapitulation of Biblical history
contains references to all the Biblical plants; and in
Jo.sephu8 references are found to Adam's fig-leaves
(" Ant."i. 1, § 4); the olive-leaf of Noah's dove (26. 1.
8, §5); Noah's vine (i'ft.i. 6, §3); Ishmael's fir-tree (iVj.
i. 12, § 3, kldTT], as LXX. and Josephus render D^IT'K'n
by analogy with NHIti'N); Abraham's oak, Ogyf/es
{ib. i. 10, § 3); the terebinth standing near Hebron

since the creation of the world ("B. J." iv. 9, § 7);

Esau's lentil pottage ("Ant.". ii. 1, § 1); Reuben's

mandrakes (?'6. i. 19, ^8); the wheat-sheaf in Joseph's

dream {ib. ii. 2, § 2) and the grapes in

Biblical the visions of the two Egyptians {ib.

Names ii. 5, § 2); Moses' ark of bulrushes (j6.

Recapitu- ii. 9, § 4), and the burning bush {iidro^,

lated by ib. ii. 12); tlie manna that was like

Josephus. bdellium and coriander {ib. iii. 1, § 6);

the blossoming almond-rod (i'6. iv. 4, §

2); the seventy palms (?6. iii. 1, §3); Ruhab's stalks

of flax {ib. V. 1, § 2) ; the trees in Jotham's parable {ib.

V. 7, § 2); the cypress and thistle of the parable in II

Kings xiv. 9 {ib. ix. 9, § 2); Hiram's cedar-trees {ib.

Vii. 3, §2; viii. 2,^7; SigS; " B. J." v. 5, ^2); the

pine-trees, which Josephus says were like the wood

of fig-trees {nevKiva, "Ant." viii. 7, § 1); the lilies

and pomegranates on the pillars of tiie Temple

{ib. viii. 3, g 4) and on the golden candlestick (iii.

6. § 7).

Solomon " spoke a parable on every sort of tree,
from the hyssop to the cedar" {ib. viii. 2, § 5) and
built the Af)Vfi6v {ib. viii. 6, § 5; comp. 6pvfi6q, " oak-
coppice, "?6. xiv. 13, ^ 3; "B. J." i. 13, § 2; Boett-
ger, "Topographisch-Historisches Lexicon zu den
Schriften des Flavins Josephus," p. 105).

Josephus, as well as the Biblical narrative, men-
tions apples eaten by Herod ('' Ant."xvii. 7; "B.J."
i. 33, § 7); fig-trees ("Ant." viii. 7, § 1 ; "B.J." vii.
6, ^3); pomegranates ("Ant." iii. 7, ^ 6); cages of
sedge (i"6. ii. 10, § 2); wheat (/6. xvii. 13, §3; "B. J."
V. 13, ^ 7); wheat and barley ("Ant." ix. 11, §2;
"B. J." V. 10, $^ 2); barley alone ("Ant." iii. 10, § 6;
V. 6, § 4); and herbs {laxavEin, "B. J." iv. 9, § 8).

In describing the legal code, Josephus recapitu-
lates the following Biblical plants: hyssop at vari-
ous sacrifices ("Ant."ii. 14, § 6; iv.
Plants 4, § 6) ; flax in the priestly robes {ib.
Named in iii. 7, § 7) ; pomegranates, signifying
the Legal lightning, on the high priest's gar-
Code, ments ("B. J." v. 5, § 7); lilies and
pomegranates on the golden candle-
sticks ("Ant." iii. 6.^7); cinnamon, myrrh, cala-
mus, and iris (" kiddah ") in the oil of purification {ib.
iii. 8, I 3; Whist on: "cassia"); cinnamon and cassia
("B. J." vi. 8, § 3); the first-fruits of the barley
("Ant." iii. 10, §5); he likewise cites the precept
against sowing a diversity of plants in the vineyard
{ib. iv. 8, § 20). In like manner the Biblical meta-
phor of the broken reed {ib. x. 1, § 2) is repeated.

Josephus is of course acquainted with the citron-
apple, mentioned in the Mishnah and forming part
of the festival-bush together with the palm-branch,
willow, and myrtle, although he calls it vaguely the
" Persian apple "(u^Aov TTjqllepciag), not the" Median"
("Ant." iii. 10, § 4). He is more accurate in desig-
nating the fruit itself {Kirpia, ib. xiii. 13, ^ 1). The
golden vine of the Temple is mentioned twice {ib.
xiv. 3, § 1; "B. J." v. 5, % A).

The "Yosippon" (ed. Gagnier, ii. 10, § 70) men-
tions among the wonders seen by
The Alexander on his way to India a tree,

"Yosippon." ptOpUD'N, which grew until noon,
and then disappeared into the earth.
In the same work (ii. 1 1 , § 77) the trees of the sun and
moon forewarn Alexander of his early death.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

In the New Testament : Tlie following names

of plants may be cited from the New Testament:

New Testament
Name.

oypitAaios (op

posed to KoA.
Xte'Aoto!).

aKavOtL

<>Ad>)

o/aiTfAos (ffTai^v-

_ A.)).

afiiiJtxov

avrfffov

i\j/u'9o<;

flarot

cAata

ii^dviov

jjiuoa'/aoc

6vifo<:, deriva-
tive from Ovia.

<cdAa/xO!

«epaTio>'.

Kpi0ri

KpLfOV

KVIilVOV

Ai^ai'os ....
Xivov

^tai'i'a .

ydpSov

nriyavov

(TlVaTTt

<tIto<;, (TTaxvi.. .

tjfJ^vpvix

trvKa^nvoi;

iTVKO^opaia

(rvKY), crvKov,
oAui'Sot.

Tpi^oAo?

ii<7<TU)7rO?

Botanical Name.

Olea Europaea, Linn., var. syl-

vestrls.

Aqullarla Agallocba, Roxb.

Anethum graveolens, Linn..

Artemisia, Linn

Rubus, Linn

Olea Europa?a, Linn

Lolliim temulentum. Linn...

Mentha

Thuja aiticulata, Vahl

Arundo Donax,

Phragmitls

nis, Trln.
Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn

Linn., and
commu-

Hordeum, Linn

Lilium candidum, Linn

Cuminum Cymlnum, Linn . .

Linum usitatissimum, Linn.

from the Tamarix mannifera,
Ehrenberp, and Alhagi Mau-
rorum, DC.

Nardostachys Jatamansl. DC.

Ruta, Linn

Sinapis, Linn

Triticum

Morus nigra, Linn

Ficus Sycomorus, Linn.
Ficus Carica, Linn

Trlbulus terrestris, Linn

Origanum Mam, Linn

Phoenix dactylifera, Linn . . .

Popular Name.

Wild olive of
northern Syria.

Thorn.

Aloe.

Vine.

Amomum.

Dill.

Wonnwood.

Blackberry.

Olive.

Bearded darnel.

Mint.

Arbor-vitae.

Reed.

Salnt-John's-
bread, carob.

Cinnamon.

Barley.

Lily.

Cumin.

Frankincense.

Flax (used only
metaphorically
for wick and
for linen gar-
ments).

Manna.

Spikenard.

Rue.

Mustard.

Wheat, grain.

Myrrh.

Mulberry.

Sycamore.

fig.

Land-caltrop.
Wild marjoram.
Palm.

More general terms are a.v9o^ (flower), poravT} (herbage), Sfv-
ipov (tree), xA^iia (branch), \dxavov (vegetable), <t>pvyavov
(brushwood), <i>vTeia (plant), \Aa>pds (green), xopro^ (grass).

The following names of plants are found in proper
names in the New Testament: the palm (Thamar),
the lily (Susanna), the fig (Beth-phage), the narcis-
sus (as tlie name of the Roman Narcissus) ; the name
of the date has been conjectured to form part of the
name of Bethany (Bet-hine). The crown of thorns
placed on Jesus may have been composed of the
gatland-thorn, Paliurus acideatus, Lam., of the ju-
jube, Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam., or of a variety of
hawthorn, the Cratmgns Azarolus, Linn., or the Cra-
taegus monogyna, Willd.

In the Pseudepigrapha : There are few ref-
erences to plants in the pseudepigrapha, so far as
the latter are included in Kautzsch's collection ("Die
Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testa-
ments," Freiburg-im-Breisgau and Leipsic, 1900,
cited here as K.). In these references Biblical figures
and concepts prevail for the most part. The fertilitj'^
("shebah ha-arez ") which was the glory of Pales-
tine (Deut. viii. 8) is lauded by Aristeas (§ 112; K.
ii. 15), who praises the agriculture there. "The
land," he says, "is thickly planted with olive-trees,
cereals, and pulse, and is rich in vines, honey, fruits,
and dates." When Abraham entered Palestine he
saw there vines, figs, pomegranates, the " balan "
and the "ders" (two varieties of oak, /Jd^vof and

''pi'C). terebinths, olive-trees, cedars, cypress-trees,
frankincense-trees (Xi^nvoq), and every tree of the
licld (Book of Jubilees, xiii. 6; K. ii. 63).

According to the later (Christian) version of the
Greek Apocalyp.se of Baruch (iv. ; K. ii. 451), Noah
planted the vine only because the wine was destined
to become the blood of Jesus; otherwise, the vine
from which Adam ate the forbidden fruit would
have fallen under a curse. Noah is saved like one
grape of a whole cluster, or one sprig in an entire
forest (II Esd. ix. 21 ; K. ii. 384). The vine is also
mentioned in the Sibylline Books (iv. 17; K. ii. 201),
the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (x. 10; K. ii. 415),
and in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
(Levi, 2; K. ii. 466), where the Lord becomes to
Levi his farm, vine, fruits, gold, and silver. When
the Messiah shall come the earth will bring forth
its fruit ten thousandfold ; and on each vine there
will be 1,000 branches; on each branch, 1,000 clus-
ters; and on each cluster, 1,000 grapes; and each
grape will yield a "cor" of wine (Syriac Apoc.
Baruch, xxix. 5; K. ii. 423). The Syriac Apoc-
alypse of Baruch (xxxvi. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 424 et seq.)
contains also a vision of a forest, a vine, and a cedar,
and the Book of Jubilees (xiii. 26; K. ii. 65) men-
tions tithes of seed, wine, and oil.

Fig-leaves are said to grow in paradise, a belief
based upon the Biblical account (Apoc. Mosis,
§ 21 ; K. ii. 522), while, according to the Ethiopia
Apocalypse of Baruch, the figs which Ebed-melech
carries remain fresh anduuwithered during his sleep
of sixty-six years and are taken to Babylon by an
eagle (p. 402).

Among other trees and fruits mentioned in the
pseudepigrapha are: the olive-tree (Sibyllines, iv.
17; K. ii. 201; Test. Patr., Levi, 8, p. 467; instead of
" siah " [Gen. xxi. 15], the Book of Jubilees, xvii. 10 ;
K. 11. 70, reads "olive-tree "), palms (Enoch, xxiv. 4;
K. 11. 254), dates of the valley (Jubilees, xxix. 15;
K. 11. 90), nut-tree (Enoch, xxix. 2; K. 11. 256; not
the almond -tree, which is mentioned shortly after-
ward, ib. XXX. 8), almonds and terebinth-nuts (Jubi-
lees, xiii. 20; K. 11. 109, following Gen. xliii. 11),
aloe-tree (Enoch, xxxl. 2; K. 11. 256), cedar (Test.
Patr., Simeon, 6; K. il. 464). A book sprinkled with
oil of cedar to preserve it Is described in the As-
sumption of Moses (i. 17; K. 11. 320); the locust-tree
(Enoch, xxxli. 4; K. ii. 256), and, especially, oaks
also are mentioned, as In the Syriac Apocalypse of
Baruch (Ixxvii. 18; K. Ii. 441); they are said to grow
at Hebron (Enoch, vl. ; K. 11. 414), at Mamre (Jubilees,
xlv. 10; K. 11. 65), and in the land of Sichem( Jubilees,
xxxi. 2; K. il. 92); the oak is likewise mentioned
in the lament over Deborah (Jubilees, xxxll. 30; K.
Ii. 96).

Of all the Information regarding trees the most
interesting is the list of evergreens given in Jubilees
(xxi. 12; K. 11. 76), while this class of trees is also
alluded to In Enoch (ill. ; K. ii. 237) and in the
Testament of Levi (ix. ; K. ii. 468; Lihv, p. 59).
Similar catalogues occur in the Talmud and Mish-
nah, and In the Greek writings on agriculture. The
Book of Jubilees mentions the following as appro-
priate for the altar: cypress, juniper, almond-tree
(for whicli, following Dillmann, "acacia" has been
suggested as an emendation), Scotch pine, pine,

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

cedar. Ciliciau spruce, palm ('?), olive-tree, myrtle,
laurel, citron (Citrus medicn, Risso), juniper (? Ethi-
opic "arbot," for which Dillmann conjectures "ar-
kot," apKo.'dog), and balsam.

On account of their beauty the following flowers
are mentioned in the pseudepigrapha: lily (Test.
Patr, Joseph. 18; K. ii. 5U2), rose (Test. Patr.,
Simeon, 6; K. ii. 464; Enoch, Ixxxii. 16; K. ii. 287;
cvi. 2. 10; K. ii. 308 et seq. : "rubra sicut rosa" and
"rubrior rosa " : it is also mentioned in the Apocry-
pha, Mishnah, Targum, and LXX.). and the rose-
laurel. The oleander seems to be intended by "the
field of Ardaf " in II Esd. (ix. 26; K. ii. 385) (the last
letter with the variants "s," "d," "t," and "b").
"Harduf" ("hirduf," "hardufni") is a borrowed
word even in the .Mishnah, and shows, together with
the Arabic "diflah," that the JV'mwni Oleander, Linn.,
came from Europe, or, more exactly (according to
O. Schrader, in Hehn, " Kulturpflanzen," 6th ed., p.
405), from the Spanish west. The plant had reached
Greece before the time of Dioscoridesand Pliny; and
it may have grown wild in Palestine by the end of
the first century just as it does at present; it is
always found in water-courses, and flourishes from
the level of the Ghor to an altitude of 3,280 feet in
the mountains (Post, I.e. p. 522). To such a region
the seer of II Esdras was bidden to go, there to sus-
tain himself on the flowers of the field. In Sibyl-
lines (v. 46; K. ii. 206, a passage originally heathen)
the flower of Nemea, akTuvov (parsley), is mentioned.

As in the Bible narrative, thorns and thistles ap-
peared after the fall of man (Apoc. Mosis, § 24 ; K.
ii. 522), while thorns and prickly briers are men-
tioned in the Sibyllines (Preface, 24 et seq. ; K. ii.
184). The Biblical "duda'im," mentioned in the
Testament of Issachar (i. ; K. ii. 478), are mandrakes,
which grow in the land of Aram, on an elevation, be-
low a ravine. Tithes of the seed are mentioned (Jubi-
lees, xiii. 26; K. ii. 65); while according to Aris-
teas (§ 145; K. ii. 17), the clean birds eat wheat
and pulse. Egypt is mentioned (Sibyllines, iv. 72;
K. ii. 202) as producing wheat; and the marrow of
wheat, like the Biblical "kilyot hittah" ("kidneys of
wheat," Dent, xxxii. 14), is spoken of in Enoch (xcvi.
5; K. ii. 302), while II Esdras (ix. 17; K. ii. 384) de-
clares (R. v.): "Like as the field is, so is also the
seed ; and as the flowers be, such are the colors also."
In the same book (iv. 31 etseq. [R. V.]; K. ii. 357)
occurs also an argument "de minore ad mains,"
found in the Bible likewise: "Ponder now by thy-
self, how great fruit of wickedness a grain of evil
seed hath brought forth. When the ears which are
without number shall be sown, how great a floor
shall they fill!" (comp. the "kal wa-homer" in II
Esd. iv. 10, end; K. ii. 355; and see Schwarz, "Der
Hermeneutische Syllogismus." p. 82, "Vienna, 1901).
Lolium (Ci^dviov) is mentioned in Apoc. Mosis, ^ 16
(K. ii. 520). Among the spices and condiments, cin-
namon is described as obtained from the excrement
of the worm which comes from the dung of the
phenix (Greek Apoc. Baruch, vi. ; K. ii. 453), and is
also mentioned in Enoch, XXX. 3, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256;
Apoc. Mosis, ^29; K. ii. 524; Vita Adie et Evae, §
43; K. ii. 520. Pepper, spoken of in Enoch (xxxii.
1 ; K. ii. 256), is new, although it is met with as
early as the Mishnah.

Among other plants mentioned in the pseudepig-
rapha are: aloe- trees (Enoch, xxxi. ; K. ii. 256);
balsam {ib. xxx. 2); galbanum {ib.; Jubilees, iii.
27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); sweet-calamus and saffron
(Apoc. Mosis, I.e. ; Vita Ada? et Eva?, I.e.); costus-root
(Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69); ladanum, and similar
almonds (Enoch, xxxi. 2; K. ii. 256); gum-mastic
(Enoch, xxxii. 1, xxx. 1 ; K. ii. 256; myrrh (Enoch,
xxix. 2; K. ii. 256; Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69);
nard (Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69;
Enoch, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256; Apoc. Mosis, § 29;
K. ii. 524); nectar, called also balsam and galbanum
(Enoch, xxxi. 1 ; K. ii. 256); storax (Jubilees, iii. 27,
xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); incense (Enoch, xxix. 2; K.
ii. 256; Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69; Test.
Patr., Levi, 8; K. ii. 467).

Aristeas (§ 63; K. ii. 10) describes pictorial repre-
sentations of plants as decorations on state furniture,
including garlands of fruit, grapes, ears of corn,
dates, apples, olives, pomegranates, etc. He speaks
also (§ 68, p. 11) of the legs of a table which were
topped with lilies, and (§ 70; K. ii. 11) of ivy, acan-
thus, and vines, as well as of lilies (§ 75; K. ii. 11), and
of vine-branches, laurel, myrtle, and olives (^ 79; K.
ii. 12). Plant-metaphors taken from the Bible and
applied to Israel and Palestine are: vines and lilies
(II Esd. V. 23 et seq.; K. ii. 361) and the vineyard
(Greek Apoc. Baruch, i. ; K. ii. 448).

In poetic and haggadic interpretations wood shall
bleed as one of the signs of the approaching end of
the world (II Esd. v. 5; K. ii. 359; Barnabas, xii. 1),
and the trees shall war against the sea (II Esd. iv. 13
et seq. ; K. ii. 356). At the last day many of man-
kind must perish, even as the seed sown by the hus-
bandman ripens only in part {ib. viii. 41 ; K. ii. 381),
although every fruit brings honor and glory to
God (Enoch, v. 2; K. ii. 237). In the Greek Apoca-
lypse of Baruch (xii. ; K. ii. 456) angels bear baskets
of flowers which represent the virtues of the right-
eous. In the sacred rites, palm-branches, fruits of
trees (citrons), and osier-twigs are mentioned (Jubi-
lees, xvi. 31 ; K. ii. 70).

At the commandment of God on the third day of
Creation, "immediately there came forth great and
innumerable fruits, and manifold pleasures for the
taste, and flowers of inimitable color, and odors of
most exquisite smell " (II Esd. vi. 44, R. V. ; K. ii.
367) ; and the beauty of the trees in paradise is also
emphasized {ib. vi. 3; K. ii. 364). The tree of
knowledge and the tree of life appealed powerfully
to the fancy of the pscudepigraphic writers. The
former, from which Adam ate, is supposed, on the
basis of other Jewish traditions, to have been either
the vine (Greek Apoc. Baruch, iv. ; K. ii. 451) or the
fig (Apoc. Mosi.s, § 21; K. ii. 522). The Book of
Enoch (xxxii. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 256) describes the tree
of knowledge thus: "Its shape is like the pine-tree;
its foliage like the locust-tree; its fruit like the
grape." The tree of life is planted for the pious (II
Esd. viii. 52; K. ii. 382), and is described in Enoch
(xxiv. 3 et seq. ; K. ii. 254) as fragrant and with un-
fading leaves and blossoms and imperishable wood,
while as in the accounts in the Old and the New
Testament its fruit, which is like that of the palm,
gives eternal life (Enoch; II Esd. I.e.; Test. Patr.,
Levi, 18; K. ii. 471, reads " tree " instead of " wood ").

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

It is the tree of paradise, and from it flows the heal-
ing oil, the oil of life, the oil of mercy (Vita Adoe et
Eva", §§ 36, 41 ; Apoc. Mosis, ^ 9; K. ii. 518. 520).

In the Mishnah and Talmud : The Mishnah

has preserved ouly about 2'M names of plants, of
which about 180 are old Hebrew and forty are de-
rived from Greek terms. In the Talmudic literature
of the post-Mishnaic period 100 names of plants are
found in the Jerusalem Talmud and 175 in the Baby-
lonian; about twenty of these names are of Greek
origin. In the Mishnah, Talmud, Midrash, and
Targum the following plants are mentioned as in-
digenous to Palestine and Babylon :

[Abbreviations : B. = Babylonian Talmud ; Y. = Jerusalem
Talmud; M. = Mishnah; Mldr. = Midrash ; T. = Tarfnim. In
the following table the name of the botanical family Is printed
In small capitals.]

Name in Mishnah.
Talmud, etc.

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

Alismace^.

»<rjNn Nn>Tin

Allsma Plantago aqua-
tica, Linn.

Water- plan-

tain.

AMARYLLIDACEiE.

O'p-iJ.B

Narcissus poeticus,
Linn., Narcissus Ta-
zetia, Linn., and vari-
eties.

Ampelidace^.

Narcissus.

7DJ, Bible, M.; NJDU,
pj-M, M., Y., B.

Vitls vlnifera, Linn —
Anacardiace^.

Grape-vine.

i^w M

Rhus Coriarla, Linn —

Pistacia Tereblnthus,
var. Palsestlna, Engl.

Pistacia vera, Linn

reslu of >3iBDa, M., Pis-
tacia Lentiscus, Linn.

Sumach.

nVN, Bible, M.; ndoo,

T.. Y., B.
nri33. M.. Bible

Terebinth.
Pistachio -nut.

T^DHD^O M

Pistachio.

OOlS, M.; didS, m., t...

Mastic.

Apocynace^.

r|mn, B.; •'jDinn, M...

Nerium Oleander, Linn.
Araliace^.

Oleander.

01D>p,M., Y

Hedera Helix, Linn —

AROIDE.*:.

Ivy.

«lf, M

Arum orlentale, M. Bleb.

naiifn Hi'?. M

Arum Palaestinum,

Boiss.
Colocasia antiquonim,

Schott.

Arum.

ori'^ir', M., Y

Cocoa-root.

AURANTIACEiE.

jnPN, M.; Njntan, T.,

Y., B.

Citrus medlca, Reiss —

BERBERIDACEiE.

Citron.

jSb-n, M.; nnnnxNC?),
Y.

Leontice Leontopeta-
lum, Linn.

BORAGINACEiE.

Llon's-leaf.

]jcij, M.; Njeu ^S-'K'.

pDOIS, B.
rccSn, Bible, M

Cordla Myxa, Linu

Anchusa olBcinalls,
Linn.

CAPPARIDACEiE.

Cordla.
Bugloss.

noxj, nSx, M.; Nmo, B.
(Dnop, bud; Nn-»D,
B., blossom; mjvaN,
Bible, M.; NPiDO, B.,
fruit).

Capparis spinosa, Linn.,
and varieties.

Chenopodiace^.

Thorny caper.

tia-\\ M., Y

I'toiifn j^tiaT

Blitum virgatum, Linn.
Chenopodium, Linn

Beta vulgaris, Linn

Blite.
(ioosefoot.

^nin, M.; N|iS'D, B —

Beet.

O'jijjS, M.; pjoSiDip,
PMJ7D. Y.

N>Sipi N|->-\\ B

Shn, M., B

Atriplex Tataricum,
Linn., Atriplex Hall-
mus, Linn.

Salicomia herbacea,
Linn.

Salsola, Linn

Orach.

Glasswort (see
also under
Ficoideae).

Saltwort.

Name in Mishnah,
Talmud, etc.

KJ11

'^.B.

PO'O, B.

N'lXllB', B

njyS, Bible; j^nrDOK
Y., B.; KTJ, T.

NDTM, M., T., B

D->r|i, M., Y., B., Midr.
IJJD, B. (not Pvijo,
despite Kohut,"Aruch
Completum," s.v.)
(T'D'Ma. N'">313, M.?)

n''33}?, M., T., Midr....

■mt. Bible, M.. T..

Midr.; K-\t'n, B.
y>n, nxip, M.; [<|"»mc.

T., Y.; 'nim'c, NT^Ti

B.
NDtanjp

pcSip. M.; jiD'Dpna,

paioj« (''^mo''?), Y.;
^3ij'n, B.

mis' >vh^y, M.; pnSiy.Y
(inn, M.) NnniD, B.,

mtn, M.; NDn, Y., B.,
Midr.

d>Sj mtn, M

Botanical Name.

CiSTACEf.
Cistu.s cretlrus, Linn.,
cistus ladanifrrus.
Linn., and otbem.

Composite:.
Matricaria rhamomlUa,

Linn., and Matricaria

aun-a.
Artemisia vulgaris,

Linn.
Artemisia monusperroa,

Del., and Artemisia

Judaica, Linn.
Ecliinops splnosus,

Linn., or Echlnops

vlscosus, DC.
Cynara Scolymua, Linn

Cynara Syrica, Bolss.,
and Cynara Cardun-
culus, Linn.

Centaurea Calcltrapa,
Linn.

Caribamus

Linn.
Clchorium Endlvla,

Linn.

Popular Name.

Ladanum-
bush, rock-
rose.

Feverfew.

Wormwood.
Wormwood.

Echlnops (?).

Artichoke.

Cardoon.

Star-thistle.

Seed of

ttafflower.

Nj''3ii8',T.,B.; wn'mn

(?), B.
pSianoD'N, M.; k-\''c

Nnw, B.
IDiy yy> Bible. M.; ca?,

M.; pjii, Y.

nN, Bible, M. ,B.; ntin.

If •'dSu, NJ'Sar, onip,
Dn.ip, B.
tfna, nna, Bible, M.,

T., Y., B.; KmB***, B.:
PdSn, Midr.

nW3, M., B.; NDO, B...

j-nc. T., Midr.

PfiS, M., B.; n<Sj"Mj

nodS, B.
ana, M.. Y.. B

Smn, M., B

pe"?, M.

-iinann, M.; p^pTana,

lUlJ (IDN W 'j), M.,
B.

D'':'ntf', M.; iSnp, B.;

pDiSnp. Y.
na2P. M.; unaon, B.:
p-iujj, Y.

tlnctorius, Safflower, saf-
fron.
Chicory.

Chicory.

Clchorium dlvarica- (

tum, Schousb.
Plcrls SprengerianajPlcrts or

(Linn.), Polr., or, dandelion.

Taraxacum, Juss.
Lacluca Scariola, var. , Lettuce.

satlva (Linn.), Boiss.

Lactuca saligna, Linn.
(V).

WlUow-Iet-
tuce.

Conifer.*.
Cupressus sempervl-' Cypress.

rens, Linn,
fruit of Plnus plnea, Pine.

Linn.
Plnus Ualepensls, MUl.

Cedrus Ubanl.

Abies Cillclca, Ant. and
Ky.

CONTOLVULACE^.

Cuscuta, Linn

CORNACE.E.

Comus mas, Linn., and
Cornus Australia,
Cam.

CRUCIKERiS.

Brasslca Rapa, Linn —

Brasslca oleracea, Linn.

Sinapis alba, Linn., and
Slnapls juncea, Linn.

Brasslca nigra (Linn.).
Koch, or Slnapls ar-
vensis, Linn.; Slnapls
ar\'ensls, var. turglda
(Del.). Asch. and
Schwelnf., and var.
AlUonll (Jacqu.),
Asch. and Schwelnf.

Brasslca oleracea, var.
boirytls. Linn.

Eruca satlva. I. am

Aleppo pine.

Cedar of Leba-
non.

CUlcian

spruce.

Lepidlum sativum,
Linn.

Lepidlum Chalepense,
Linn., or Erucarla
Alepplca, Gaertn. (?).

Dodder.

Cornel, dog-
wood.

Turnip.

Cabbage.
.Mustard.

Wild mustard.

Cauliflower.

Eruoa. wild
and culti-
vated.

Pepperwort
<f).

Pepperwort.

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Name in Mishnab,
Talmud, etc.

Botanical Name. Popular Name.

h-\H. >i;, M..

D'SO'K, D'2D. M

|UX. D1CJ. M.; t<^i^s, Y.
B.; Nr>n, B.

C13C0. Y.
nj-ij-i, M

, Iberis (Iberis Jordan!, 'Candjrtuft.

Boiss., Iberis Taurica,
I DC, ll)em odorata,,
j Linn.).
'Isatis tinctoiia, Linn. . . Dyer's-wttad.

, Raphanussatlvus, Linn.iRadlsh (two

varieties).

CRYPTOr.AMI.K.

M.;|Equl8etum, Linn Scou ring-rush,

olBcinarum, Miltwaste (?).

Ceterach

I Willd.
Kirj, B jPterls aquilina, Linn. .

^tpr, M.; p3'^3'SiD, T.lAdlantum CaplUus-Ve

(?).

neris, Linn.

Brake.

Maidenhair
(but see
Mentha Pu-
1 e g i u m ,
Linn., penny-
royal, under
Labiata?).

rJ3*iiT. M., Y Scolopendrium vulgare, Hart's-tongue.

DV1C, M Roccella tlnctoria, Litmus.

Achar.

tvn, B iLecanora or Sphiero-'Manna-lichen.

I thalliaesculenta,Nees.j

nvnsij (pi.), M., Y.; Fungus Fungus.

N"<3'D, B. I

D^nco. yp-icc. M.;iTuber Truffle.

nSt\J7, Y.; K-nx, B

CCCURBITACK.K

Cucumis Chate, Linn., Cucumber.

and Cucumis sativus,

Linn
Cucumis Melo, Linn

p^vp, Bible, M.; N^ap
{pL),T.;Nj''Xi3,{<ti^0,

]^DD^^•::, M.. T., Y.
Midr. I

n'oas, Bible, M iCitrullus vulgaris,

Schrad.

nppD, Bible, M Citrullus Colocynthis

(Linn.). Schrad.
ny7i, KM-tp, M.; N-\p,Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser,
«3?-»p. B.

r'^^anp, M., Y

"Men .-piT

Luffacylindrica(Linn.),
Roem., or Luffa
.figyptiaca. Mill. (?).

Ecballium Elaterium,
Rich.

Cupuliferj:
inoS'K, M.; p1i^D, Y . . Corylus Avellana, Linn.
B^Sa, T.. Y., B.; 3'j-<D

(pL), Midr. (Biblical

proper name c-ia').

p^N

M. ; NxciN

O'JIB'JK (?), M.

KCJ, Bible; 'SJ, M.
p-MN. M., T., B.

Midr.).
"hyo (pi.), T., B., Midr.

B.; Quercuscoccifera,Linn.,
and varieties Quercus
Lusitunica, Lam.,
Quercus Cerris, Linn.,
etc.

CTPERACE.E.

Cyperus Papyrus. Linn.,
and others.
Y. (Palestinian Cyperus esculentus,
Llun. (and Cyperus
longus, Linn., Cyperus
capitatus. Vent.).

Cyperus rotund us, Linn.

ynsc-N, M., T., B.
(pri'O.M.?);nj«opifl,
Y., Midr.

PV. V't'^SH, M.; N3'SiSx,
B.

P'-iU, Bible, M.; NnM,
B.; nj;-^>, M. (?).

D'J-i-j (pi.). M.; JJB (?),

Bible.

nw, M.. Y., B

im-i. Bible, M. (rnii' ?.

Bible, y.).
KC"! ND"?'n. B

ID^C, M.

ECPHORBIACEiE.

Buxus longiiolla, Bolss.

Ricinus communis,
Linn.

FiCOIDEiE.

Mesembryan them urn,
LI nn ., or A izoon,
Linn. (? corap. Sall-
cornia, Linn.).

Graminace^.

Panicum miliaceum,

Linn.

Oryza satlva, Linn

Andropogon Sorghum,

Linn.
Andropogon Schoenan-

thus, Linn.
Avena

Muskmelon.
Watermelon.
Colocynth.
Gourd.

Washing-
gourd.

Squirting cu-
cumber.

Hazel.
A com.

Turkey
etc.

oak.

Papyrus.
Gallngale.

Galingale.
Box.

Castor
plant.

oil

Fig -marigold,
ice-plant.

Panic.

Rice.

Dunra. gulnea-

gra.ss.
Beard-grass.

Oat.s.

Name in Mishnab,
Talmud, etc.

n'Sav

N'^a'

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

(identical with 2^'sn.
M., Y., B., Midr. >).
njp, Bible, M.; N'jp, Y.,
B.; DJ1B, T.

iSn, pSin, M.

pjv, M., Midr.

nan, Bible, M., T., Y.,

B., Midr.
PCD2, Bible; pcDO, M.;

N.-ijo, T., B.; naSu,

Syic rSnr, M.; 'S^ac

nSpp, N-\s'n, B.
mijrc, Bible, M.;
N.-i->yD, T., Y.

HTip, M.; KP'JS'C. B.

CynortonDactylon.Berm uda-
Linn. I grass, scutoh-

gras.*!.

ArundoDonax,Linn., or Persian reed.
Phragniites com-
munis. Trin.

Eraprostis cynosuroldes
(Retz.), Roem. and
Scb.

Lollum temuientum. Bearded dar-
Llnn. nel. tares.

Tritioum vulgare, Linn. Wheat.

Triticum Spelta, Linn.. Spelt.

.(Egilops, Linn. (?) ,

Goat-grass.

pc"*, Bible, M.; nj::i-«,
T., B., Midr.; iNj, B.

\-i2in, B. (?)..

Dn'N, M., Y

Hordeum distychum' Barley.

and Hordeum vulgare,

Linn.
Hordeum bulbosum,

Linn. (?).

GRANATiE.

Punica Granatum, Linn.

Pomegranate.

a^D-12, M., Y., B.; N:n<3i'i.

HypERicixE.e.

. Hypericum. Linn St. John's-

wort.

iRIPACEiE.

Iris PalaBstina, Baker, Iris.

Iris pseudacorus.'

Linn., and other?.
Crocus sativus, Linn Crocus.

pCD>, B.

njN, Bible, M.; ntun, B.

ja^n ('"N), M., B.; jjc,
M.; NP3X, B.; nfiv^jn
{no^-i^, M.).

Jasmi.nace.e.

Jasminum offlcinale,
Linn.

JUGLANDACE.«.

Juglans regia, Linn

JCNCACEiE.

Juncus or Cyperus

Jasmine.

Walnut.

Reed or sedge.

LABIATiE.

P'3?N, M Lavandula Stoechas, Lavender (?).

Linn.
njjjj,yj>'j, M.; Nnj''D (?), MenthasyIvestrls,Llnn., Mint.

Y. i and others.

ntpv, M.; pjniD.B Mentha Puleglum, PennyroyaL

j Linu.
3itN, Bible, M.; Nnr, Origanum Maru, Linn.. Marjoram.

nnmc. picrric, B. ; I

nu'D, M.; nrx, Y., B.; Thymus, Linn., and Sa-'Savory.

>N!:'n, NP-\3N, B. I tureia. Linn.
n^mP' M., Y., B iCalamintha. Moench.... Calamlnt.

LACRACEiE.

]-\is. Bible, M. ?; 'i>', Laurus nobilis, Linn. ^?)

NJD1, B.

D1D-MP, M., Y., B., Midr.
P'DD;', M

Ncnn, T. (Dm, Bible).

]pSp, m.; unSiVatt',

N^an, B.
nimjnj (pi.), M.;

■"pipijn, Y., B.; S'Sa

NaSc, B.
»Nia 'pipnin (?)

ttrODOH, B.
HVW, B....

Leguminosa.
Lupinus Termls, Forsk.
Lupinus Palsestinus,

Boiss., and Lupinus

ptlosus, Linn.
Retama Raetam,

(Forsk.), Web.
Trigonella Fcenum-

gntciim, Linn.
Melllotus. Tourn

.-ijn. M.; N,"jv-i, T., B.
(Bible, vixpj, ?).

PCN. M.; •'XC'n. B

K'p-a, M., Y

Melllotus (?), Medlcago

(?), Trigonella (?),

Trifollum Vn.
Medlcago satlva, Linn.,

orTrifolium,Linn.(V).
Glycyrrhlza glabra,

Linn.
Alhagl Maurorum. DC.

Cicer arletlnum. Linn..
Vicla satlva, Linn

Laurel, bay-
tree.

Lupine.

Juniper-bush.

Fenugreek.

Sweet clover,
honey-lotus.

Medic, or
I'lover, trefoil.
Licorice.

Alhagl.

Chick-pea.
Vetch.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

Name in Misbnah,
Talmud, etc.

nj'r-is, M.; Nirn, B...
ncny, M. (Bible);

, wnci'^D. T., B.

ViD, Bible, M., T., v....

ra'^n ^id, M.; njnc^s
{?),Y.

Y.; •'DJU, Nr'^'DD.

(V), M.: ]'-\in'>U".
npicD (variants
nnic^D. noiciD).

->iDD, M.; NJ1!r''D, Y

w-iin (Snn, Bible) . . . .
nctn, M.; npiSt, Y...
pp^1C, M.; Njia?u, Y..

Botanical Name.

Popular Name.

NXcn, B

n-'jijr, M —

ann, M., Y. B

D'D^Ss (?)

Vlcla ErvlUa, Linn Vetch.

Lens esculenta, Moench. Lentil.

Vlgna Sinensis (Llnn.),[Bean.
Endl. (not Phaseolus
vulgaris, Linn.;.
Vlcla Faba, Linn. (Faba Straight bean,
vulgaris, Moench.).

Four Indeter-
minate varie-
ties of beans.

Three Indeter-
minate varie-
ties of pulse,
probably
- S y r 1 a c
N P D 1 D, a
variety of
lupine.

Hairy - podded
kidney-bean.

Vetchling.

Everlasting
pea.

Lablab.

Aleppo senna,
or senna.

Phaseolus Mungo, Linn,

n!2'ii\ Bible, from which
comes NP^nn npj^'h,
B.

hcppN, B

D^DH >JD Spu' r^p^'s'', M.;
•«im JP''^, Y. (NPcaiN

N3nNl, B. ?).

>lSv, M.; niSn, B.; miSn,

Sx3, Bible, M.; NDCB", B.
D'CiDH c'^sa, M. (I)..

D'JIS^Tl D''Ss3, M

SixSxa, M.; nSijSjb, Y.
ntf n3, M. (-I'xn, Bible):

of op, M.,T., Y., B.;
■•pns, T., Y., B.
mi* 'U'nD, M

Name in Mlshnah,
Talmud, et*'.

Lathyrus, Linn

Lathyrus Clcera, Linn..
Lathyrus sativus, Linn.

Dollchos Lablab, Linn..
Cassia obovata, Collad.

or Cassia acutifolia,

Del. (?)
Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn.

Prosopis Stephanlana
(Willd.), Spreng.

Two varieties of Acacia,
Willd.

sap of Acacia Nilotlca,
Del.

Lemnace^.
Lemna minor, Linn

Liliace^.
Aloe vera, Linn..

Allium Cepa, Linn

Allium Ascalonicum,
Linn.

Diti", Bible, M.; P''jcii:',

M.; ND1P, NP'JDIP, Y.
3?nn y:, M

}»>3Sn, M

Allium Cepa, Linn

Allium Porrum, Linn..

Allium curtum, Bolss.

and Gain. (?).
Allium sativum, Linn. . .

njtyvi', Bible, M., T.;

pj^ip, Y.
"l?cn T^yyw, M

Omithogalum, Linn —
Lilium candidum, Linn.
Fritlllaria, Linn

LlNKiE.

IPU'D, M.; NJP'3, T.,Y.,
B.

NJij-^n, n'] Njijin
[NP''cn NPj''m.

1D3, Bible, M.; njun^
(?), M.

NJN1N, NJN-\n, B

]DJ irx, M., D3V (?).
M.; Njou -\cy, Y., B.;
Ntp, B.

D-in, Bible, M.; NDN, T.,
B.

Llnum
Linn.

usltatisslmum,

Saint -John's -
bread, carob.
(see below).

Acacia.

Duckweed,
duckmeat.

Aloe.

Onion.

Shallot.

Summer on-
ions.
Onion.
Leek.

Garlic.

Onion.

Star-of- Beth-
lehem.
Lily.

FritUlary (?).

Flax.

LORANTHACE^.

Loranthus Acacise,
Zucc.

LYTHRACEJv.

Lawsonla alba, Linn —

Malvace.e.
Malva rotundifolia,
Linn.

Gossypium herbaceum,
Linn.

Myrtace^.
Myrtus communis,
Linn.

Mistletoe.

Henna.

Common mal-
1 o w and
others.

Cotton-plant.

Myrtle.

>iJtDn

Botanical Name.

NYMPHiEACEiE.

"\JtDn Sid, M.: K^iD'Nelumblum speclosum.
N^^XD.'JiSY.onn?) Willd.

Oleace^.

FraxlnuH OrnuB, Linn..

P-r. Bible. M., T., Y., Olea Europa-u, Ltnu

B., Mldr.

n-<'e, M.

-\3P, Bible, M.; Spi,M..
,T., Y., B.

N?NP

D»«, M.; KP>«:X, B

NP'jSo, B

JVDIN, Y

paSj, M.

nnnj?, Bible; t<37n, T.
Y., B.

POLYGO.NACE.K

nyn 313N, M.; untJCin, Polygonum avirulare

Popular Name.

Lotus.

Alb.
Ollvo.

PAI.MACE.E.

Phoenix dactyllfera, l)ati'-i>iiun.
Linn.

Papaverace.*;.

Papaver Hha-aH, Linn.

opium from Papaver
somnlftTum, Linn.,
var. glabniiii. Bolss.

Glaurium cornk-iilatum.
Linn.

Plata NACEiK.

Platanus orlentalls,
Linn.

Young palmi.
A variety of
palm.

Corn-poppy.
Common pop-
py-

Horn-poppy.

Oriental plane-
tree.

N'V">"' N-iDin, B.

NrnciD, Y., B.

NC31, M.

HN^n (n^'^T, n'P), M.
Nn>11JT N">p^v, B.

nsp, Bible

P>B'^8'S(B'), M. (?)

pen (pi.), M.; N1J3, B.
pBt'C, M., Y.; nO'lJ', B.

^pB'. tiS Bible, M., T.;

NlJ'Ii', B.

poncCN], M., Y

prjpDE-in, M.; ppc,
M. (?); PvjiHN, Y.;

nu'D, B. (?).

njD, Bible, M.; N'jD.

NJDN, T.. Y., B.

Linn., or Polygonum
e(4Uisetifonne, Slbtb.
and Sm.

PORTCLACACE^.

Portulaca oleracea,
Linn.

PRIMCLACEiE.

Cyclamen Coum, Mill.,
and Cyclamen lall-
follum, S. et 8. (?)

RANU.NCCLACE.E.

Ranunculus sceleratus.
Linn., and other spe-
cies.

Nlgella saliva, Linn

RESEDACE.E.

Luteola tlnctorla, Web.
Reseda luteola, Linn

Knot-grass.

Purslane.

Round -leaved

ivclaiiii'ii.

Crowfoot, but-
tercup.

Nutmeg - flow-
er.

DyerV

weed (?).

RHAMNACE.S:.

Zizyphus lotus. Lam. .Jujube, and
and Zizyphus spina- Chrlst's-
Chrisil, Linn. thorn.

Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam. iCommon Ju-
jube.

ROSACEJE.

Amygdalus communis. Almond.

Linn.
Persicavulgark, Mill... Peach.
Prunusdomestlca, Linn. Plum.

Blackberry.

mn, M., T., Y., B

DjN, p'^^ciaonp, M —

D>>Da, M. (Y.)

ni£3P, Bible, M.; -\itn.
T., Mldr.; Cm, 'in)
a'tt'3ij.'i ^'-i t<!i'^3n
B. , ,

pcno. n?'D''7''D, M.;

p'^J-lDD'N, Y.

Nrcns, B

T\rn('iN),M. [PVjccn,

pvtt"cn!].
-\-\Ti>% M.; •e'S>o, B....

PNID, M.; NP1D, B.

DJ-D. M.; NS'r3 (?).

NJJ'O, B.

Rubus sanctus, Schreh..
or Rubus discolor,
Willd. and Nees.

Rosa, Linn

Pyrus communis, Linn.

P'yrus Syrlaca, Bolss. (?)

Malus communis, Desf..

Cydonia vulgaris, Willd.

Sorbu."*. Linn
Mespllus

Linn.
CratiFgus Azarolus.

Linn.

Rose.
Pear.

Apple.

Quince.
Service-tree.

Germanlca, I Medlar.

Hawthorn.

RCBIACEf.

Rublatlnctorum, Linn.,

Madder.
Rue, and Alep-

RrTACK.K.

Ruta grnveolt-ns. Linn.,
and Uuta Chalepensls,^ po rue
Linn., and varieiyi
bracteosa, Bolss. '

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Name in Misbnata,
Talmud, etc.

lairn r^'Ps, M.. ideo'
tlcalwlihs->ar, B.(?)

."iDXCS, Bible, M.

KPB^n. n'^'j Hs^-n, B.
nan;:, Bible, M.; N.-a^N
Kjiinn, B.

01CS1P, M.; Nce'ir, T.,
B.

pin, Bible, M.(T.,Y..B.)

n'^n.-! '3J?, B

IBK, Bible, NOCN, T

Botanical Name.

Pefranum Harmala,
Linn.

SALICACEiE.

Sallx Safsaf. Forsk.,
or SalLx alba, Linn

Sallx (nigricans. Fries.?)

Populus Eupbratica,

Ollv.

SCROPHrLARIACE^.

Verbascum, Linn

Popular Name.

SESAMACELE.

Sesamum Indlcum,
Linn.

SOLANACE.E.

Solanum coagulans,

Forsk.
Solanum nigrum, Linn.
LyciumKuropseum,

Linn.
Mandragora of ficina-

rum, Linn.

I Tamariscine^.

(Srw, Bible) Nra, B...!Tamarix articulata,
Vahl, and others.

O'Kin, Bible; Nnn3>,
T.; pD'2D, B.

V'jsVd.y

nj'jnnn, M

13DO. M., Y.. B.; -\i
Bible.

mr '3

onnsr'o

OB-iS, M., Y., B

nnnjac 13D13, M.

pj>S'Dna>D, Y.
nn^Dn ('n).m.; m'j^j, b

HM-\3, B.; D3"\|"i, M. (?).
]Ji3U, M.; N-«2i8', Y.;

D'Oie', M. (V).
-\Kn\ M.; 011DP, hniB,

B. (?)

Harrael, Syr-
ian rue or
a variety
of mullein
(Scrophu-
lariace^e).

Willow, or
w h i t e w 1 1 -
low.

Black willow.

Euphrates
poplar (3;'r,
osier, accord-
ing to Hai
Gaon. Salix
vimlnalis,
Linn. [?]).

Mullein (see
Peganum
Harmala,
Linn., under
Rutaceae).

Sesame.

Nightshade.

Nightshade (?).
Box-thorn.

Mandrake.

Tamarisk.

nac M.

l^JICODK, M.. Y

J1D3, Bible, M., T., B..

r"D, Mm Mldr.

nin, M., Y., B..

Tiliacej:.

fiber of Corchorus, Corchorus.
Linn.

UMBKLLIFERiE.

Eryngium Creticum, Button snake-
Lam, root.

Coriandrum sativum. Coriander.
Linn.

Biforatesticulata, DC.(?)

Coriandrum tordylioi-
des, Boiss. (?)

Apium graveolens. Celery.
Linn.

Petroselinum sativum. Parsley.
Hoflm. I

Ammi majus, Linn., Bullwort, bish-
Ammi copticum, op' s-w e e d ,
Linn., and Ammi Vis- Spanish
naga, Linn. toothpick.

Carum Carui Linn Caraway.

Foeniculum oflBcinale, Fennel.
All.

A variety of Ferula.

Anethum graveolens,

Linn.
Daucus Carota, Linn...
Cumlnum Cymlnum,

Linn.

Urticace^.
Celtis australis, Linn. . .

Morufl nigra, Linn.,
Ficus Carlca, Linn.

nj^Kr, Bible, M.;
K.-'rN.-i. T., Y., B.

nci">''2', Bible, M., Midr.;|Flcu8 Sycomorus, Linn
Krpir, T. I

pam.n, M.; pair. Y.... Capriflcus. wild varie-
ties of Ficus Carica,
Linn., variety of Fi-
cus genuina, Boiss.,
of Ficus rupestris,
Uaussk., etc.

Diajp, M. Cannabis satlva, Linn.,

Kainp, T ortlca urens, Linn.

Fennel.

Dill.

Carrot.
Cumin.

Southern hack-
berry.

Black mul-
berry.

Fig.

Sycamore.
Fig

Hemp.

Nettle (?) (see
Tribulus ter-
restils, un-
der Zygo-
phyllaceae
I?]).

Name in Misbnah,
Talmud, etc.

NCJNT ^mp.

Ka ix"\p, corrupted
N^ionp, T. <?).

Botanical Name.

verbe.nacej:.

Avicennia ofHcinalls,
Linn. (?).

ZVGOPHYLLAOl*:.

Tribulus terrestris,
Linn., or Urtlca urens,
Linn.

Popular Name.

Avicennia (?).

Land - caltrop,
or nettle.

The foreign plants mentioned in the Tahnud in-
clude the following, although the Boswellia was
cultivated in Palestine in antiquity :

Hebrew Name.

as'3 nj|i, Bible; 'jp

NCD13, T.
2::n, M

ryiDViJ, M.; •'Sipp, Y., B

t3tJ'ri(nB'i3), M.; N.-nr3
(?).

nir, Bible, T., B., Midr,

rjtap, M. (pcD^BN,

psoSa); DS'a, Bible.
njiaS, Bible, M., T., B.

n.iCD

p:;jp, Bible, M., Y„

Midr.; NDjip.pxm, B.

HDiSip, M

DO'DS, B. (readcD'D)..
DJV

njaSn, Bible, M.. T., B.
csra ^e'Ni

-nj nSias', M., Bible;

KSavi*, T.
SdSd, m., y., b

DiSn, M.; NjnjN, T., B.;
from this, n\n'?n.

Botanical Name.

Acorus Calamus, Linn.
Amomum, Linn

Popular Name.

Sweet-flag, cal-
amus-root.
Amomum.

Cardamom.

Costus.

Amomum Cardamo-

muin

Saussurea Lappa, Clarke

(Aucklandia Costus.,

Falconer ; Glldemels-I

ter and Hoffmann,!

I.e. p. 901).
gum-resin of Commt-I

phora Abyssinica,

Engl., Commiphora!

Schimperi, Engl., and

others.
Balsamodendron Opo- Balsam.

balsamum, Kunth.,

Commiphora Opobal

samum (Linn.), Engl,
frankincense of Bos-
wellia serrata, Roxb.,

and others,
resin of the dragon-tree.

Calamus Draco, Willd

(Dracaena Draco,

Linn., etc.).
(Tlnnamomum Zeylanl-

cum, Nees.

KJNK', B.; from this,
N^iajjr

bark of Cinnamomum

Zeylanicum, Nees.
Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb.
DiospyrosEbenum,

Retz.
Galbanum from Ferula

galbaniflua, Boiss. and

Buhse.
Myristica fragrans,

Houtt., and others.

Nardostachys Jataman-
si, DC.

Piper nigrum, Linn

Scorodosma (Ferula)
Asafoetlda (Linn.),
Bentb. and Hook.

Tectona grandis, Linn..

Zingiber officinale.
Rose.

Dragon's-
blood.

Cinnamon.

Sissoo-wood.
Ceylon ebony.

Galbanum.

A species of
nutmeg and
mace from
tbe nutmeR-
tree.

Spikenard.

Black pepper.
Asafetida.

Teak.
Ginger.

The following are names of briers not yet identi-
fied: -Nain, mn, Niyv xaia, n'jnvy, }*ip. Tradi-
tion, comparative philology, and botany alike fail
to furnish any aid in the identification of the follow-
ing names of plants, which appear, for the most
part, only once:

pN, M. (N.n>j-\% Y.); nvjTN, M. (not lichens); Ni>r''M, Y.;
NnDf\N, B. (not St.-John's-wort); piai, M.; pniSnSn (pVnSn),
M.; N."i''^Dn, Y.; I'^r, M. (not blossoms of the (tiVtrapos);
nS'C, M. (not the oak or the ash); nrs, B. ; nSnoo, Y. ;
\vy nS;rr:, M. ; n^ama (niflmD), M. ; n.-ti>d-id, Y. ; nn'«j;

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plantfl

(ni-cv). (not Ferboscum, mullein); d^zz' nxy, M.; hm'^i^d (not
(it\i<7<T6<t>v\\ov, balm); p^ nio and varieties; Njta^B'D and
varieties; njjS mp (not Cosfiis ^raWcus, Linn.).

Where tradition is lacking it is extremely diffi-
cult to identify the plant-names recorded in the
Mishnah and Talmud, though inferences may occa-
sionally be drawn from the plants mentioned in
connection witli a problematical term. An instance
of this is the D''D'^3. mentioned together with the
3<nn, carob, St.-John's-bread (Ter. ii. 4; Tosef. v.
33 = Yer. 'Orlah ii. 62a; Yer. Bik.
XJnidenti- iii. 65, 13c; 'Uk. i. 6), and which oc-
fied curs by itself (D'O'^Datr J"':rin"' : Tosef . ,

Names. Ter. vii. 37; Yer. Ter. viii. 45, 68b;
Sifra, Shemot, 57a; Hul. 67a). This
was traditionally explained as a variety of bean
(" Halakot Gedolot," ed. Hildesheimer, 547, 4, where
the correct reading is ■'^pa = TaSHBaZ, iii. 11,
^^pN2), but later was regarded as an acorn. The
proximity of the carob suggested Cercis Siliqiias-
trum, Linn. (Leunis, "Synopsis," § 437, 14), the
Judas-tree, on which Judas Iscariot is said to have
hanged himself, although according to other tradi-
tions he died on an elder or a jujube. Pulse is called
"false carob," aypia ^yXoKeparta (Lenz, "Botanik der
Griechen und Romer," p. 733; Fraas, "Synopsis,"
p. 65; Post, I.e. p. 297). It is, however, to \)g identi-
fied with the Prosopis Stephaniana (Willd.), Spreng.,
which belongs to the same family. This is in ac-
cordance with the view of Ascherson, who was sur-
prised, while in the oases, by the similarity of the
sweet, well-flavored pulp of the fruit of this tree
with that of the St.-John's-bread {ib. p. 298).

In the Geonic Literature : The geonic

period, which came to an end In 1040 (see Gaon),
saw a development of the botanical knowledge of
the Babylonian Jews, as is evident from the deci-
sions of the Geonim and the first great post-Tal-
mudic-halakic work, the " Halakot Gedolot " (cited
hereafter as "H. G."). The chief cultivated plant
that is mentioned in this work for the first time in
Hebrew literature is the sugar-cane. Other im-
portant trees, plants, and fruits mentioned are the
following: tree and fruit of the Musa sapientium,
Linn., the banana, perhaps also a variety of the
Musa paradisiaca, the plantain, under the Arabic
name "mauz," derived from the Sanskrit ("H. G."
66, 19; 57, 5; "Responsa der Geonim, "ed. Lyck, No.
45, p. 18; "Toratanshel Rishonim," ii. 56; "Shibbole
ha-Leket," 12b; RaDBaZ, ed. FUrth, No. 531, a.v.
"Hai"; "Bet Yosef," Orah Hayyim, 208; L5w,
"Aramaische Pflanzennamen," p. 336); Daucus
Carota, Linn., carrot, ITJ (also in Arabic and Syriac,
"H. G." ed. Hildesheimer, 60, 19; ed. Venice, 8. b4;
"E.^hkol,"i. 68, 10; Post, I.e. p. 372; L5w, I.e. p. 86);
"'^131p, Sinapis arvensis, Linn., a variety of mustard,
put in brine in Roman fashion ("H. G." ed. Hildes-
heimer, 72; read thus instead of "i3J1D; Post, I.e.
p. 76; L5w, I.e. p. 178); plums, under the name of
^nxn, like the Syrian " haha " (" H. G."
The ed. Venice, 7, cl5; Law, I.e. p. 149);

"Halakot >3)0 ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8, b23; lack-
Gedolot.'' ing in ed. Hildesheimer, 58, 28 ; " Esh-
kol," i. 68, ■•J10, as in Syriac), a vari-
ety of bean (in this same passage and in "H. G." ed.
Hildesheimer, 547, 5, also ^^'p3, Arabic " bakilta ") ;
1 X.— 6

another variety of bean (L(iw, I.e. p. 245); 'p^J'^n
("II. G." 58, 4-5), myrobaltm, as in Syriac, from the
Arabic "halilaj," not mentioned again until tin- time
of Asaph ben Berechiah, but used later in all the
works on medicine (Steinsciinoider, " Heilmittelnu-
niender Araber," No. 1997; Liiw, I.e. p. 12'J); KH'^C
(" II. G." ed. Venice. 8b. 21-22). the Aramaic form of
the mishnaic DQC, a Persian loan-word, appearing
again in Asjipli ([..iiw, I.e. p. 373) ; mJU ( '0, inarj^inal
gloss in "H. G."(('d. Hildesheimer, 57. 6). a ground-
fruit. In " H. G." 70, last line = " Eshkol." i. 68. the
Arabic "hinnah" is used for the Hiblical "henna"
(LOW, I.e. p. 212).

Other Arabic and Persian names of plants wliirh
are mentioned in works of the Geonim are: JJTnc,
hemp-seed ("H. G." 56, 20; "i:sliko)." i. 68, with
"resh," but in ed. Venice, 7b, rightly with "daiel ";
RaDBaZ, ed. FUrtli, 531, s.v. "Hai"; LOw, I.e. pp.
211, 248); 33Dn. Polypodium (" H. G." Ill, 5; Lilw,
I.e. p. 268); m^^, Bransiea JitijHi,
Persian Linn., turnip ("H. G. "72,21 ; Mislmah.
and Arabic Talmud, nC?; Low, I.e. p. 241); nx;r
Names. D1DDK ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8c), (Jry-
mum boMlieum, Linn., basil; n313V,
pine-nuts {ib. ed. Hildesheimer, 57, 8; ed. Venice,
7d; "Eshkol," i. 67); XT01J("H. G." 57, end; Hai,
in "Responsa der Geonim, Kehillat Shelomoh," ed.
Wertheimer, No. 9; Harkavy, " Responsen der Geo-
nim," p. 28 ; L5w, I.e. p. "286); JD1D, the Arabic
equivalent of D'PDyn DJ^IK', lily (**H. G." 70, end);
KQ^n {ib. 646, 10). A number of Arabic names
of plants may be found in the marginal glosses of
the Vatican manuscript of the "Halakot Gedolot."
as "hasak," thorn, gloss on >yr\ {ib. 160, No. 36);
JDBJ (read JDBJ3), violet, on >^rD {ib. 70. No. 102;
"Eshkol," i.- 68; RaDBaZ, i. 44 = n^lK'1. "Keneset
ha-Gedolah," Orah Hayyim, 204; D^IK'1. responsa,
"Debar Shemuel," No. 2; {^^IK^V Lehush, Ora^i
Hayyim, 216, 8); p^KDII. equivalent to the Arabic
"sil," on p-in("H. G." 92, No. 29; Harkavy. I.e.
p. 209).

The Geonim, especially Hai Gaon (see Hai ben
Sherira), prefer to give their explanations in Ara-
bic. In the responsa the Harkavy edition, for exam-
ple, has " abnus," " shauhat," " sasam "(p. 135 ; Krauss,
"LehnwOrter," ii. 46), "abhul" (p. 23; "Responsa
der Geonim," ed. Cassel, p. 42a), "anjudan " (p. 23).
" babunaj ''{ib. p. 209), " sunbul al-nardin" (p. 29), and
"kurnub" (ib. p. 208). In his commentary on the
Mishnah (Toharot) Hai Gaon gives, as a riile, the
Arabic names of the plants side by side with the
Aramaic terms, as, for example: "isfunj," "asal."
"thayyil" (Harkavy, I.e. p. 22). "jauz buwa."
"juliban," "harshaf," "hulbah" (ib. p. 23).
"hiltith." "haifa," "khiyar," "khayzuran." "dar
sini," "rajlah," "rumman," "za'faran." "sadhab."
"safarjal," "silk," "shuniz," "shaytaraj." "fuU."
"kitha' al-himar," "kirtim," "kar'ah," "ka.^ib al-
bardi." "kummathra," "mahruth," "na'na'."

The Arabic names of plants in the " 'Aruk " are
drawn almost without exception from geonic
sources. The list is as follows (in the order of the
Arabic alphabet):

Alam. OJK (this and 'uyun al- Akak-lya, nv.'^n.
bakar, 8.U. rpDC"^")- ^°^"'' i>.\-n'a^ 'a^ al™ »-

Plants

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Baklah. rui^ji'rn (111. 396a).

Bakkam. n£j3-\.

Ballut, cri*^.

Bunduk, |i-»jic.

JlUauz." NJ20 f'^JO.

Juminalz, t"SJ.

Julban, ^^E. nc>J.

5abb al-muluk, rvj3i3i.

Parmal. k">3S'.

yulbah, jrSp.

5alfa, r|Vn.

Qimmls, C'JiCN.

Handakuk, rvjijnj.

^anzal. -ijj3.

khlnva', X3'':'i^x, ynoN.

Khashkhash, J'j-^d.

Dar stnl, prj,-". am. p3t"n

(HI. 161b. 428b).
Dar kisah, nci'^'i"'.
Rajlah, n'^'J"*. ruiSjiSn (11.

Zaghab al-khlyar, ?;• nis'3

■ rwp.

Zarghun, jdj Va' jna*.

Za'rur, n-ity.

Zawan. y:v.

Safarjal, 2"-\o.

Silk, B'jiy'', p^D (1. V9b).

Summak, jin (also s-v. .--a
y3XK, No. 2 in Paris MS.).

Slmslm, =-j-:ir.
Shajar maryam, no^-^'
Shuh, 'mrN.
?aKhir al-adhnab, a'jaip.
Sanaubar, pr }";.

•Af9, NXDN.

'L'kruban. s^jani-'j:.
Ghubalra'. "cSia (inrp.
Fuji. pjs.

Farfahln. r^JiSji'^n.
Fustak, pPD^D is-v. pD).
Fukka', ."v-\BD (s.u. pnc;).
Faljan. nyc-
Fuwwah. riNic.
KakuUah. ^iDi'D (11. 241b).
Karnabit, ■>.-^3">."'.
Karanful, "^oio.
Kutniyya, rvr^"'.
Kuikas, opir' (not t]^'^).
Kabar (kifar), I'-x, Nmc

(viil. 248).
Karratb, n^j'-^s.
Karafs, DD">3.
Kuzburah. ■>3DU "^J.
Kushut, rw2.
Kamah, ]'<7y::j.
Labsan, poS.
Na'na', Krj3.
N'il, DCDS.
Hindaba, "a-'jn.

For a proper understanding of the Talmudic
writings constant reference must be made to the
traditions of the Babylonian schools, preserved in
the decisions, commentaries, and compendiums of
the Geonim and their pupils. Most
Hai Gaon. Jewish statements about plants like-
wise rest on such traditions, of which
the greatest number is preserved in the writings of
Hai Gaon. Hehasalsokeptanumberof old Aramaic
words in his explanations, such as ND'H, radish;
N^31p, camomile; NJKa^''n(N^a^3n[?] ; LOw.^.c. pp.
140, 309, 326; Harkavy, I.e. p. 209). R. Hananeel
BEN Hushiel preserved a considerable amount of
botanical information from geonic sources, and this
was made more generally known by the " 'Aruk."
For example, he strikingly describes sago as "a
substance like meal, found between the fibers of the
palm" (Kohut, "Aruch Completum," vi. 65a); co-
conuts as coming from India {ib. vi. 10a) ; arum (S)"ip)
as a plant whose roots are eaten as a vegetable with
meat, and which has leaves measuring two spans
in length and two in breadth {ib. v. 29a); and reeds
as growing after their tops have been cut off {ib. iii.
420b). Mention is made of a prickly food for camels
{ib. ii. 180b), as well as of castor-oil and its use {ib.
vii. 19b). Lupines and a certain other
Hananeel pulse, he declares, do not grow in
b. Hushiel. Babylon {ib. vi. 229b). He is unable to
describe Peganum Harmnla, Linn., ac-
curately, but says it is one of the plants used for
medicinal purposes, while its small, blackish seed,
which has a strong and unplea.sant smell, is very hot
{ib. viii. 19b), in the technical sense of the Greek
medical writers; it is mentioned here for the first
time in rabbinical literature (Meyer. "Gesch. der
Botanik," ii. 192; comp. Galen, xii. 82: "It is hot
in the third degree"). According to Sherira Gaon,
pU seeds are hot, and therefore the seed-bearing
onion-stalk also is hot (Kohut, I.e. v. 330a; these
are the first traces of Greek medicine in rabbinical

literature). Cedar-wood becomes moist in water, but

fig-wood remains dry (" Da'at Zekenim, Hukkat,"

beginning), according to Saadia Gaon,

Saadia. whose translation of the Bible is the
chief source of many identifications
of Biblical plants, since, where definite traditions
were lacking, he introduced definite Arabic terms
to make his translation readable (Bacher, "Die
Bibelexegese," p. 6).

In conclusion, a few more botanical details from the
writings of the Geonim may be mentioned : the ac-
curate differentiation of capers, their buds, blossoms,
fruit, and parts; the correct explanation of "'aspara-
gus " as the tender roots of cabbage, not asparagus
(Harkavy, I.e. p. 196); and an accurate definition of
n'DIp {ib. p. 179). Hai Gaon clearly describes the
Cuscuta(e6. p. 215; LOw, I.e. p. 231) and the heads of
camomile, and gives a brief account of the XK'01"13
= Arabic "' giiubaira' " (Harkavy, I.e. p. 28; "Ke-
hillat Shelomoh, " ed. Wertheimer, No. 9). The arti-
choke is also well characterized by Sherira and Hai
when they say that the spines are taken off, and the
inside of the plant iseaten(Abu al- Walid, Dictionary,
115. 17; 392, 4 [ed. Bacher] ; D. Kimhi, "Miklol,"«.t!.
lyiy). One geonic writer, probably Hai, identifies
niyipD ■^vith the eggplant, but for historical reasons
this can not be accepted.

In the geonic period Eldad ben Maiili ha-Dani
invented his "darmush" for pepper, and also de-
clared that neither thorns nor thistles grow in the
lands of the Lost Ten Tribes (D. H. Miiller, "Die
Kccensionen und Versionen des Eldad
Eldad ha-Dani," pp. 18, 68, Vienna, 1892),
ha-Dani. which devote themselves to tlie culti-
vation of flax {ib. p. 1). To the same
period belongs the medical work of Asaph ben Bere-
CHiAii, which is based upon the Syriac translation of
Dioscorides, and has thus preserved many Syriac
names of plants. Shortly after Asaph came Shab-
bethai Donnolo (946), who was primarily a writer
on medicine. In the "Sefer ha-Yakar." ch. iii.-iv.,
however, he enumerates the plants that improve or
injure the quality of honej'.

The list of thirty varieties of fruit given by
pseudo-Ben Sira is noteworthy, even though it is
borrowed from Greek sources. The passage is dis-
cussed by Low {I.e. pp. 2 et seq.) with reference to
Mas'udi {ib. p. 4; see also Brull, "Jahrb."i. 205).
Even before Low, Noldeke had suggested that
there were Arabic recensions of the passage (LOw,
I.e. p. 417); and their existence is evident not only
from Mas'udi but also from Tabari (" R. E. J." xxix.
201). According to Stcinschneider ("Hebr. Bibl."
1882, p. 55), the thirty varieties of fruit are mentioned
as Palestinian also by Hayyim Vital in Natan Spira's
"Sha'are Yerushalayim," vi. 6, end.

In the Post-Geonic Period : Information

concerning the knowledge of plants in the post-
geonic period must be sought in the translations of
the Bible, the commentaries on the Bible and Tal-
mud, and the lexicons. Here it will be sufficient
to mention some of the statements of R. Gershom,
the 'Aruk, Rashi, and a few other writers.

In the commentaries which are probably correctly
ascribed to him R. Gershom ben Judah has the
oldest foreign words (KOnigsberger, " Fremdsprach-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants

liche Glossen, I.— R. Gerschom b. Jehiida," 1896;
Brandin, "Les Loazim de R. Geislioin," iu "Publ.
Ecole iSationale des Cliartes," pp. 15 ct scq., Tou-
louse, 1898; "R. E. J." Nos. 83, 84, 85. Braiuiiii
consulted the mauuscripts also; but, strangely
enough, he has not the gloss 13''D^D, B. B. 2b, and
this is also lacking in Low's aliihabctical list of Gcr-
shom's foreign words). Braudiu transcribes the
following foreign plant-names: "aveine," wild bar-
ley ; " bayes," fruits of the laurel ; " boso " (Italian),
"bois," boxwood; "cro," "crocu orientel," salTron ;
"honilon," hop; "kmel" ("ehmiel," Slavonic);
" kos," " kost," costmary ; " laSre " (Italian, " lasero "),
laserwort; "lesche," sedge; "lor," laurel ; "molse,"
moss; "ortyes," nettles; "pores,"

R. Ger- leek; "sape," fir-tree; "sigle," rye;

shorn. "spicu," ear of corn, spikenard;

" tel," linden-tree ; " ternure," ternage ;

"tora," torus (Menahem b. Solomon, mn) ; " wa-

ranze," madder-root; and y^P (<'" pt^* |*y, Tamid

29b).

The linden is mentioned here for the first time in
Jewish literature. Later, npK is translated " linden "
iu Germany (Grlinbaum, I.e. p. 27), and Baruch
Lindau (1788) renders mt^X by " linden." The only
linden that Post {I.e. p. 8) knows in Palestine is the
Tilia argentea, Desf., the Oriental silver linden,
Avhich grows in the region of the Amana. No linden
is mentioned as coming from Egyjit (Ascherson and
Schweinfurth, "Flore d'Egypte*" p. 53). Nor did
the Syrians know liow to translate (pil'vpa, the name
of silver linden; the Arabic rendering by Berggren
(in a manuscript belonging to the Deutsche Morgen-
landische Gesellschaft) is "zihr al-mahlab." The
word "thore," mentioned above, also is of interest,
as R. Gershom ben Judah is the oldest source for
the word.

According to Gustav Schlessinger, Rashi has the
following French names of plants:

French Name.

Aloe's (aloine).. .
Aloisne, aliilsne.
Amandelier.
Amerfoille.

Aneth

Apje

ArisUilocbe (?)..

Arnica (?)

Asperelle

Asperge

Avene

Bale

Balsine

Blet

Bolet

Broce

Bills

Caprler

Cep

Cerfiiel, cerfoll..

Cerise

Cerque

Chardon

C h a s t a 1 K n e .
chastalgnier.

Chesne

Chiche

Clpoule, ciboule,

Coinz

Coldre

Conrombre

Corme, cormier

Colon

Englisli
Name.

Aloes.
Wormwood.

Dill.

Smallage.
Birthwort.
Arnica.
Horsetail,
shave-grass.
Asparagus.
Oats.
Berry.
Balsam.
Wild blite.
Boletus.
Shrubs.
Bo,x\vood.
Caper-bush.
Vine-stock.
Chervil.
Cherry.
Oak.
Thistle.
Chestnut.

Oak.

Chickpea.
Shallot, clbol.
Quince.
Hazelnut.
Cucninber.
Sorb, service-
tree.
Cotton.

French Name.

Cresson

Croc, groc.

Fglantier

Eliandre

Erbe felchiere . .
Erbe sabonaire..
Erugue.

Espeltre

Espic, spic

Fspine

Fasele, faseole . .
Fenocle, fenoil..
Fenugrec, fene-

gre.

Galle

Galvan

Geneivre, geni-

evre.

Girofle

G land

Grespignolo,

crespigno (?).
Guesde, waisde .
Homlon.
lerre. ere. edre. .

Jote, jotte

June, ]onc

Laitiigiie

I.anbruis

Lasre

Lesche

Lor

Lupine

Maro

Malve

English
Name.

Cress.

Eglantine.
Oleander.
Fern.
Soapwort.

Spelt, [nard.
Nard, spike-
Thorn.
Kidney-bean.
Fennel.
Fenugreek.

Oak-apple.
Galbanum.
Juniper-

berry.
Clove.
Acorn.

Woad.

Ivy.

Beet.

Rush.

Lettuce.

Wild vine.

Laserwort.

Sedge.

Laurel.

Lupine.

Poppy.

Mallow.

French Nunie.

Marrubje

M.'lon

Mcnte

Meiirlcr. moll-
rler.

Mil

Molse

Nesple, niiple . . .
Nlele

F.ngll8b
Name.

Oline

OrUe

Oseille

Osre, osier

Faille, poile fo-
arre {'<)■

Funis, penlz

rnsitV|ue

I'erseche, pre-
seche.

Peupller, pou-
pller.

Plan(;on (?)

I'oiuel.

Porchallle, por-
chilague.

Pore, porele

PoulieuLpouUol,
poliol.

Provain

Prune, prunler. .

Pulpiet, pour-
pier.

Hoarbound.

Melon.

Mint.

Mulberry
tree.

Millet.

Mods.

Medlar.

11 o B e - c n m
plon, rnul-
leln-plnk.

Elm.

Nettle.

isorri-l.

lOsllT.

Isiruw.

French Name.

Panic-grass.
Waleniielon.
Peucli.

Poplar.

Pine-tree.
Sapling.

Purslane.

Pore.

Slip.

Plum-tree.

Purslane.

Pyr&thre

Kafne

Ilonce

RoHe

rt'ittell, roMiaii.. .

Kude

Sadree.

Sale**

Siilve<', i-elvle.

Saiiibuc.

Slip.

s<'igle

.Sevol

Sorbler, cormier,

Souche

Tnn

Thore

ril, Icil, tel

Tn-lljf

Tn-iiible

Troche

Tudel, pecce

Vedllle

Veranee, va-
rance.

Verdure

Vice, vece..,..
VIole, viol^ . ..
Zinzlbre

BpaiiUh rnnin-
iiille. fcvur-

fl'W.

ItHdUh.

u luck berry -

bllhh.

lOrW.

Rue.
Willow.

EnglUb
Name.

tree.

Kye

He<lge.

Servl<-<'

sorb.
Stunip.
Tan.

Crowfofit.
LInden-harl.
Vlne-urlKjr.
Aspen.
Cluster of

flowers or

fruit.
Halm.
Tendril.

Verdure.
Vcich.
Vloli-t.
Ginger.

Most of the "loazim" of the Mahzor Vitry, ad-
mirably discussed by Gustav Schlessinger, come
from Rashi. Among the names of plants arc:

Araerfollle

Apje

Aspic

Cerfeuil

Chanve

Chardon

Cresson

Crlspigno

Croc
Cumin
Eliandre (for

coriandre)
Erbe felchiere
Erbe sabonaire
Erugue
Glanz

Gome

Homlon

Jonc

Laitugue

Marrubje

Mire (myrrhe)

Nlele

Pels (pois)

Port-

Poulplet

Pnin

Rafne

Reslne

Rude (rue)

Safran

The Arabic names of plants found in the " "Aruk"

of R. Nathan b. Jehicl have already been given, since

they are derived for tlie most part.

The though not exclusively, from gconic

'Aruk. sources. Ilis vernacular glosses, in

part taken from Gershom, are better

preserved than Rashi 's foreign words, of whicli

twelve are lacking iu Kohut's Italian index.

[In the following list the references, unless otherwise stated,
are to Kohut, "Aruch Completum."]

Albatro (vl. 185a).

Aloe (i. 2.5'Jb).

Aneto (viil. ~'4a).

Appio (iv. 341a; "R. E. J."
xxvii. 241).

Armoracclo (vll. 28b).

Asparago (iv. l.'>8a).

Assafetida (error for "la-
sero").

Atreplce (v. 49b).

Avellana (11. 4~'a): nocella (vl.
3()7b ; Menahem b. Solomon,
"SekelTob," p. xil.).

A vena (see segale).

Balsamo (vli. 84b).

Bambagia (vli. 2.'ib).

Ba.>islllco (Iv. 234b).

Bieta. bliti (1. T9b. 138b; Sl-
ponto [hereafter cited as
Sip.l on Kll. i. 3; not "ble-
tola").

Bosso, busso (I. 314a, vl. 328a).

Braslle (vll. STTb; Sip. on

Kll. II. .'■)>.
Canapa (vll. 131a; Sip. on Kll.

V. 8: "R. E. J."xxvll.246).
Canella (111. I6lb).
Cappero (v. 374b, vl. 421a, vll.

21a; Sip. on Dem. I. 1:

Ma'as. Iv. 6).
Cardl dom««tlcl (vl. 90b: Sip.

on Slieb. Ix. 5; comp. car-

(Inton-, vl. 144 1.
Cardo (vl. 19(5a ; " R. E. J."

xxvll. 248).
Caretto, not corteccia (111.

408a).
Cerasa (111. 5b).
CIcen-hla. cicercia (III. 431b.

vl. 3018, b; Sip. on Kll. 1. !).
CIcerl (I. 22na: Sip. on Kll.

111.2; Peah III. 3).
Clnnnmomo (III. 3(6a).
Colocasla (v. 28b ).

Plants
Pledges

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Coriandro, culiandro (Li. 239a.

241b, iv. 272a; Meaahem,

"Sekel Tob." p. xii.; Sip.

on Kil. i. 2; Sbeb. ix. 1;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 245, note).
Conne (French) salvatico (iv.

333a).
Costo (vil. &la, 223b; Sip. on

Kil. i. 8).
Cotogna (til. 313a; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 24J5 : Sip. on Kil. 1. 1).
Crespino (vi. 2U»a ; " R. E. J."'

xxvii. 216; Menahem, I.e.

p. xi.).
Croco orientale (vi. 329b, vli.

310b).
D&ttile. gloss (vi. 32b).
Eliotropio <vi. 252b).
Ellera. edera (iil. 472a, vil.

IKJb; "R. E.J." xxvii. 247;

Sip. on Kil. V. 8).
Erbaglaucio lii. 290b).
Fagiuolo, fasolo (vi. 301b ; Sip.

on Kil. i. 2).
Fava, faba, faba blanca (vi.

301b; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).
Ferula (viii. 19b).
Finocchio, fenuclo (iv. 158a,

viii. 61a; "R. E.J." xxvii.

245 ; Sip. on Sheb. ix. 1) .
ForragRio (i. 190a).
Fungo (iil. lib. vi. 318b; **R.

E. J." xxvii. 248).
Galla (iii. 431b).
Garofano, giroflo (Iv. 301b;

"R. E.J." xxvii. 242).
Gelso (il. 129b; o'^'X on •'aSi'?

hSkh ; Sip. on Sheb. vti. 5 ;

'D'^'X, Ma'a.s. i. 2).
Glande (v. 36a. 393a ; vi. 104b) .
Gomma (ti. 378b. vii. 122a).
Indaco, Indicum (i. 172a; Sip.

on Kil. li. 5).
Indivia (error for "sena-

zione").
Isopo (vi. 2b ; Sip. on Sheb.

viii. 1).
Lambrusco (ii. 339b).
Lasero puzzolento or purulen-

to (Menahem. I.e., ikjnSid),

not laserpitium (iii. 421a).
Lattuga (iii. 364b ; " R. E. J."

xxvii. 243, Kiya^, NpioS;

Menahem, I.e. ; Sip. on Kil.

i. 2).
Laudano (error for "ladano")

(v. 18b).
Lauro (vi. 2.56b ; " R. E. J."

xxvii. 243).
Legume (vii. 83a ; Sip. on Hal.

1.4).
♦Llsca (vi. 7.5n).
Lupino (false reading, 11. 362a,

iv. 333a).
Malva (iil. 246b. 404b ; vl. 391a;

Sip. on Kil. 1.8).
Marrobbio (v. oSb, vlll. 245a ;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 244 ; Men-
ahem, I.e.).
Menu (i. l.Jla ; v. 181a. ^9b ;

"R. E.J." xxvll. 243).
Mora (vlll. 291a).
*Nervolo (?. vl. 30b; ''hyy-\(i.

Sip. on Kil. 1. 1; iSiaij.

Caleb Afendopolo, Kil. 16b ;

Kohut, "Aruch Comple-

tum," ervolo [?].
Nigella (vli. 17.-)b. lii. 306b;

not gloglio. logllo, but ni-
gella. corn-campion, con-
fused with darnel).
Nocella (see avellana).
Orlgano (vl. 2b ; Sip. on Sheb.

vill. 1).

0r20 (vii. 256b).

Papavero (vi. 410).

Pastlnaca (v. 346b).

Pera (i. 25a; Sip. on Kil.

i.4).
Persica (1. 242a).
Pigna (vi. 239b).
Pilatro (iii. 243b. 441b).
Pisi (pisello ; vi. 301b; Sip. on

Kil. i. 1).
Polio (iii. 248b ;vl. 315b, 2b;

Sip. on Sheb. viii. 1).
Porri (iv. 342b; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 245; Sip. on Sheb.

vii. 1; Kil. i. 2).
Procacchia, porcacchia (ill.

395a, iv. 263a, vii. 253a ; Sip.

on Sheb. ix. 1).
Pmgua (iii. 155a, iv. 351b, vl.

294a ;"R. E. J." xxvii. 248);

Ni'D rzn-\si'h— ti-f^^B (vi.

412a; Mussafla, Jujubes, ac-
cording toBuxtorf),'|i-ix''ic,

\">''X^iO (viii. 281a; Ben

Sira, " Pflanzenuamen," 3;

Caleb Afendopolo, twice

with " r." Kohut, I.e. iv.

263a, is incorrect) .
Radice (v. 361b ; Sip. on Kil.

i..5).
Ramolaccio (see armoracclo).
Robbia (vii. 175b; Sip. on

Sheb. v. 4, N^n).
cncn (vi. 196a; neither ra-

muccio nor rusco).
Rosmarino (iii. 410a; "R. E.

J." xxvii. 246).
N^n. N-\''n, n'l (111. 262a).
Ruchetta oruga (i. 305a, iv.

34.5a ("Ruca di Petro";

Sip. on Sheb. i. 1).
Ruta (vi. 291b; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 246 ; Sip. on Kil. i. 8 ;

Sheb. ix. 1).
Salvatico, selvatico (vi. 355b).
Sanguine (iii. 241b).
Satureia (iii. 511a; v. 349b;

vi. 2b, 173a).
Segale (n^P'^d, Sip. on Kil. 1. 1),

variant reading, avena (vlll.

13b; NJM\ Menahem, I.e.).
Senazione (Iii. 222a; Caleb

Afendopolo, Kil. 17a,

■*J«rx), domestlche and fo-

restiche (vl. 210a), not sonco

(comp. "R. E. J." xxvii.

241).
Sesamo (viii. 109b).
Sisimbrlo (i. 297a, vl. 2b ; Sip.

on Sheb. viii. 1).
Sorbo (vl. 185a; see "alba-

tro," "R. E.J." xxvii. 218;

Sip. on Dem.l. 1).
Sorgo (viii. 144a).
Spelda, espelta (111. 168a;

NX^'Dtt', Menahem, I.e.; Sip.

on KU. 1. 1).
Splcanardi (v. 334b, viii. 13a;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 242).
Tartufo, tartufolo (vl. 318b;

"R. E. J." xxvii. 248).
Vecda (Hi. 221b. iv. »l,3b, vl.

liOlb; Sip. on Kil. I. 1).
Zenzero (ill. .30.Ta ; "R. E. J."

xxvii. 247; >i3fr. Sip. on Ur-
iah 11.10).
Zenzevero, zenzlberl (ii.

31tib).
Zizzanladl. 233) Is wrong, even

if the word were Italian ; it

Is Aramaic, however.
Zizzlba (?) (III. 321b).
Zucchero (iii. 47.3a) is iriD.

and is not Italian.

Cocco

Espino

Rise

Costola

Fenugreco

Rosa

di cavolo

Lupino

Salvia

Cucuraeri

Meli porcaroll

Senape

Endivia

Miglio

Sicomorl

E.-ipioa vulpl

Mirtilli

Timo

In the twelfth century R. Isaac ben Melchize-
DEK OF SiPONTO took over from the " 'Aruk " forty-
one Italian names of plants and a few
R. Isaac Arabic ones, while the Greek terms,
Siponto. such as Of/?.ic and ^v/.oKepara, and the
following Italian words occur for the
first time in his work :

Aglio

Amandola

Carruba

Carvi

Ciceri llmpldl

Cicorea

Clpolla

A large number of his plant-names still await iden-
tification. Asparagus proper, which has erroneously
been supposed to be mentioned in the Talmud
(Krauss, "Lehnw5rter," ii. 93), seems to occur first in
Isaac'scommentary onSheb. ix. 1 as»'T13T="lDD^X,
"sparagio" (cited in " Kaftor wa-Ferah," 107b, Ber-
lin; J1SDN, corresponding to. the Arabic " hilj'aun "
= "asparagus"; see Aldabi, "Shebile Emunah," p.
75a; Tobias Cohen, 151a: D'tOIB' or p'i5\T is wild
asparagus; j'lni', the cultivated kind). Isaac is
also the first post-Talmudic author to mention the
cornel or dogwood (corniolo ; Kpavia), in the passages
Peah i. 5, Ma'as. i. 2, where he rejects the view that
it is identical with Jis, sumac.

Maimonides gives the names of plants exclusively
in Arabic in his commentary on the Mishnah ; and
these terms have been discussed by LOw in his
"Aramiiische Pflanzennamen," on the basis of the
Berhu manuscripts of this gloss. In his medical wri-
tings likewise Maimonides follows the Arabic phar-
macology; for instance, ninety-one vegetable reme-
dies are mentioned in Ins " Dietetics " ; but these be-
long rather to the history of medicine. From his
"Moreh" mention may be made of the story of the
Nabatsean cultivation of the mandrake and althea
("Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235), the
reference to indigo (ib. i. 392), and the expression
"like a locust-bean," meaning "practically worth-
less" (ih. 1. 157). Maimonides has won a lasting
name in the history of botany. Even after Sprengel
("Gesch. der Botanik," i. 178) had tried to identify
the plants mentioned in the mishnaic tractate Kila-
yim, basing his investigation on the Latin transla-
tion of the commentary of Maimonides in the edition

of the Mishnah by Surenhuis, Mayer

Mai- ("Gesch. der Botanik," iii. 220), allu-

monides. ding to the plants mentioned in "'Uk-

zin," declared that Maimonides had
given his interpretations with discrimination and
had displaj'ed an unmistakable knowledge of bot-
any ; but that, though he had a wide acquaintance
with plants, his explanations were drawn chiefly
fiom school traditions, and were not the result of
independent investigation. Proceeding on the an-
thropocentric theory of the universe, Maimonides
declares in his introduction to the Mishnah that trees
and plants were created for tlie nourishment or heal-
ing of man, even though in some cases he fails to
recognize this, or has never known it; and although
the uses of all tiie plants on the earth may not yet
be understood, each successive generation will be-
come acquainted with new herbs and fruits which
will prove of great advantage to it.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plants
Pledges

Of the later halakic writers the only one to be
mentioned here is Estori Fakiii (flourished in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries),
Estori who made a careful geographical and
Farhi. scientific exploration of Palestine.
His remarks on plants in his " Kaftor
wa-Ferah " may readily be seen in the third index of
Luncz's edition of that work, for which Low ar-
ranged the data in their proper order. The com-
ments in Wiesner's Hungarian biography of Farhi
(p. 31, Budapest, 1896) on certain botanical notes of
the hulakist are very inadequate. Farhi 's statements
regarding shallots and onions in Syria are note-
worthy, as are also his identification of Cordia Myxa,
his accounts of Musa and Bndingan, and the collo-
quial Arabic name for Pyrns Syriaca (Boiss.), equiva-
lent to 'OtJID^K, which explains the Syriac KD'^DID
(Low, I.e. p. 208).

According to Buber("Sekel Tob," Introduction,
p. xi.), Menahem b. Solomon (1139) has the follow-
ing names of plants in addition to the
Menahem list already quoted from the " 'Aruk " :
b. Solomon, -jmn KTlJ on NSOn; 'rVIIQ "'mJ
on pj-'J-in; nin on n-'-n (probably de-
noting R. Gershom's "thora"); in^ on n"'J03: its
resin 1031^; 'l^llp'V, chicory (see Isaac Siponto
above); iDHin on p^niH; 1PJ''12K' on 01^.

In order to define the heterogeneous plants more ac-
curately, the Karaite Caleb Afendopolo of Adria-
uople (end of the 15th cent.) arranged an alphabetical
list of about sixty plant-names, and, following Mai-
monides in the main, tried to identify the plants and
explained them in Arabic, Turkish, modern Greek,
and Rumanian. Of this list, which appeared in the
appendix to "Adderet Eliyahu," the
Caleb following may be mentioned as of
Afendo- botanical importance: D'K'Un he re-
polo, gards as medlars, called also nvt^'^on
(Low, I.e. p. 114; "R. E. J. "xviii.
112, on "nespole"; Joseph Perles, "Beitrage zur
Gesch. der Hebraischen und Aramilischen Studien,"
pp. 135 et seq.), because they have five seeds. He
relates that the banana, T1XD, was described by
Japheth ha-Levi (953) as a cross between the date-
palm and the colocasia; while he (Afendopolo)
learned from the Karaite Joseph ha-Kohen that it
was a cross between the date-palm and the sugar-
cane. Joseph told him also that the colocasia had a
rootstock as large as an ox-hcad, and that it w^as the
daily food in Egypt, where one head often brought
as much as 900 dirhems. He describes the cucum-
ber {Cucumis Chnte, Linn.), which was widely cul-
tivated in Egypt, as very long and as thick as the
finger {ib. vii. 17b). The "nabk" {Zizyjihus spina-
Christi, Linn.), Christ's-thorn, he describes as sweet,
and as large as a hazelnut (see Post, I.e. p. 201),
while its shell was half red and half green, and its
kernel was like that of an olive or common jujube.
In his time, as at present, the tree was very common
in Egypt (Ascherson and Schweinfurth, I.e. p. 59).
Why Afendopolo ("Adderet Eliyahu," Appendix, p.
16c) uses the Hebrew or Aramaic KVn (L5w, I.e. p.
225) for " parsley " is not clear.

In connection with Afendopolo two older Karaite
lexicographers may be mentioned, David b. Abka-

1IAM(A1-Fasi)and Ali b. Sidalnmn, in whose works,

according to Pinsker's extracts ("Likkute Kadmo-

iiiyyol," pp. 206 d hoj.), the fallowing

David names of plants are nieutiuned: **^n-

Al-Fasi dal/'D'^nX. sundalwoijd ; " ma'atar"or

and Ali b. " zaatur, " aUN . "' wisum " or " abnus,"

Sulaiman. D'Dj!?N, ebony ; " kamu."nn»<, fuiiguB;

" ka/,ljarah,"*l3, ctjriander ; "saj,"lQl3;

"khatmiyah," nioSn; "zaarur" or "ansul," pvyj;

"wars" or "nilular," mj; "sa'atar" (= "zu'ular").

IQID; "dulb,"pD-iy; " l.ianzal." niypD; "karfah"or

"kist," nip; "karnafal,"pD:p; " kuzah," "sliuniz,"

nvp (Pinsker, erroneously. D'^JVa ]nh: ".salikhah."

n^nt'; "sant," D't3L''; " jummaiz," nopt;'; "sharhin."

"abhal," "saj," or "siiiniasiiar," -i,-nn "Henna"

in Pinsker, I.e. p. 212, note 2, is an error.

BnJLiOGRAPHY : Gcorgi' E. Post, Flora of .S)/r(a. T'alfi^ine,
and Sinai from the TauruK (o lian Muhnmnuul, niut from
the Medi(erraui(Ui Sea to the Syrian iJexi rl, Beirut, 1W«1;
J. Bornmullor, Kin Deitran zur Krnntni.Ks <ler flora ron
Surien und Paid.^tina (In Verhnnillruiurn ilir /.onlmiiiTh-
IiotaniiiChcJi GeitelUehaft in Wien. inyHi; l>-n|,i;irl Kunck,
Streifzlii/e Durch die BihliMrhc Flora, Frt-ibiiru-lin-Brvls-
gau, 1900. with a complete blbllograpby, pp. xl. tt ««</.

E. G. H. I. Lo.

PLATON(PLATYON)OFROME: Scholar of

the second century c.k. Like T()(li»s( Thcodorus) the
Roman, his probable contemporary, Plalon s(jught
to inspire his persecuted coreligionists with resigna-
tion and steadfastness, reminding them tliat others
had suffered before them for their faith and liad been
ultimately delivered. "Hananiah, Misiiael. and
Azariah," said he, "derived courage to resist Nebu-
chadnezzar, at the risk of being burned " (Dan. iii.
13), from the Scriptural assurance (Dcut. iv. 29),
"If from thence thou slialt seek the Lord tiiy God.
thou shall find him, if thou seek him with all thy
heart and with all thy soul" (Midr. Teh. xxviii. 1).
Platon construes literally the Scriptuml sjiying
(Deut. iv. 11), " Ye came and stood under the moun-
tain." According to him, Sinai was detached from
the earth and suspended in the air, while tiie Israel-
ites stood under it (Cant. R. viii. 5; comp. Abdimi
B. Hamar).

Bibliography: Vogelsteln and RleRcr, Oesch. dcr Judcn in
Rom. 1. 109 et seq., 176.
E. c. S. M.

PLEDGES : The law against taking pledges for
debt is drawn from the following passages: "No
man shall take the mill or the upper millstone to
pledge : for he taketh a man's life to pledge " (Deut.
xxiv. 6, R. v.), "nor [shall he] take the widow's
raiment to pledge" {i'Ij. xxiv. 17. R. V.); "And if
he be a poor man, thou shalt not sleep with his
pledge: thou shalt surely restore to him." etc. (ib.
xxiv. 12-13, R. V): and Ex. xxii. 26 to like effect.
The " taking to pledge " in these passages is under-
stood as meaning a seizure to secure an overdue
debt, not the taking of a pledge by consent at the
time of a loan.

The oral law goes in its interpretation far beyond

the letter of Scripture. The Mishnah .says (H. M.

ix. 13): "He wliotjikesamill topledgc

In the breaks a negative conunand. and is

Mishnah. guihy for eacii of twoimplemcnt.s, the

lower and the upper millstone [refcr-

rinnto Deut. xxiv. 6]; and this applies not only to

a mill, but to any implement wherewith life-giving

Pledges

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

food is made, for it is said, ' he taketh man's life to
pledge.'" "One does not distrain the goods of a
widow, whether she be poor or rich " (referring to
ib. xxiv. 17). "He must return the pillow for the
night, and the plow for the day; but if the debtor
dies, they need not be returned to the heirs." The
seizure in this way is of use to the creditor only to
preserve his lien and to prevent the debt from run-
ning out in the year of release. Elsewhere ('Ar.
vi. 3), on the occasion of an execution on behalf of
the Sanctuary, but as a rule applicable to all debts,
the Mishnah reserves to the debtor (1) food for thirty
days; (2) clothing for a year, bed and bedding, san-
dals, and phylacteries; (3) to a mechanic his tools,
such as adzes and saws, two of each kind, and, ac-
cording to R. Eliezer also, to a farmer his yoke of
beasts for the plow, and to a carrier his ass. But ac-
cording to the prevailing opinion (' Ar. 23b), oxen and
asses are not regarded as tools and are not exempt.

There is a discussion in the Talmud (Shab. 128a)
as to what should be done in the case of a man
heavilj- in debt and clothed in a robe worth 2,500
shekels. Should it be taken from him and clothing
suited to his position given him? R. Ishmael an-
swers, "All Israelites are the sons of kings, and no
garment is above their rank." From these passages
in Mishnah and Talmud the Shulhan 'Aruk draws
the following rules (Hoshen Mishpat, 97) :

The officer of the court can not seize a hand-mill,
but a water-mill is landed estate, and, without being
actually seized, is treated like lands (see Appr.\ise-
mext). But if the creditor undertakes to remove
parts of a water-mill, they become personalty and ex-
empt. Pans and pots for cooking, a knife for slaugh-
tering, and the like, are "implements for life-giving
food." If such things are taken to pledge, the
creditor must return them. Accord-
Further ing to R. Moses Isserles, such tools as
Develop- barber's scissors are not exempt, nor
ment. are beasts of the plow. Scissors for
cutting gra.ss are clearly exempt, the
grass being food. If a man has five hand-mills in
use, none of them can be seized ; but if only one is
in use, the others are subject to seizure. Food itself
is subject after the lawful allowance is set aside.

The officer can not seize a garment which the
debtor has on his body, nor the ves.sel from which
he is eating, and he must leave a couch or bench to
sit upon, and a bed and mattress to sleep upon.
Though seizing all the rest, he must return bed-
clothes for the niglit, and tools for tiie daytime. It
should be remembered that household goods are not
sold, but simply held as security; other goods are
sold after the lapse of thirty days. The obligation
to return household goods holds even when the
debtor is rich in lauded estate.

The officers who arrange satisfaction say to the
debtor: "Bring all your movuble property, not
keeping buck as much as one needle."
Exemp- From the whole they set aside for him
tions from provisions for thirty days (as a "mid-
Pledge, dling man," says R. Moses Isserles,
though he had lived like a poor man
before) and clothes for twelve months, excepting,
however, silken garments or a gold-embroidered
turban; .these things they take from him, and give

him a sufficient supply of clothing better suited to
his condition (contrary to R. Ishmael's view). They
set aside also bed, mattress, and bedclothes, but these
things are not set aside as exempt if they are the prop-
erty of the wife and children, who simply keep what
they have; for it is the husband's duty to support
them. Sandals and phylacteries are exempt. A me-
chanic is allowed a double set of tools (as in the
Mishnah); farm- or draft-animals are not set aside,
nor the skipper's ship or boat, nor the professional
scholar's books. The creditor has priority over the
wife's right of maintenance, but he can not seize her or
her children's clothing, nor the cloth which has been
dyed for their use, nor the shoes bought for them, even
though they have not been worn, nor books bought
for the children's education. According to some
opinions, the finer clothes for the wife's wear on Sab-
baths and festivals are not exempt, and certainly' gar-
ments containing gold or silver clasps, if bought by
the husband for the wife, are subject to his debts.
Where, however, they form part of her dowry they
are exempt.

The allowances named above are to be set aside
from either land or personalty. There is some dis-
pute as to whether the allowance ("siddur") is to
be set aside where the debt has been incurred for
wages or for the hire of beasts, and not for money
or property ; also as to how far the debtor can waive
the allowance when contracting a loan. But the
debtor can not waive the exemption of "implements
for life-giving food, "as no stipulations can be made
contrary to the provisions of the Torah. However,
the Hoshen Mishpat closes the subject with a
clause which might defeat all these humane provi-
sions: if the debtor has sworn that he will pay the
debt, he must give up even his last shirt — a clause
which allows the parties to supersede by private
arrangement the words of the Law.

Maimonides, who treats of exemptions in the

" Yad,"Malweh, iii., says nothing about the debtor's

oath as a means of nullifying clauses.

Waiving- either in written or in oral law, made in
of Rights, favor of poor debtors — an oath which
the creditor might have forced from
him as a condition of the loan. In fact, the creditor
may not be allowed to accept such a suicidal fulfil-
ment of the oath, for all standards acknowledge the
Scriptural conmiandment "thou shalt not exact of
thy brother " (Deut. xv. 3, Ilebr.) as forbidding such
harsh measures as well as such pressure as would
drive the debtor to encroach on his wife's property.

The standards agree on the treatment of widow
debtors. Maimonides(/.r.) says: " Whethera widow
be rich or poor you can not take her goods in pledge,
either at the time of tin; loan or by way of execu-
tion." This leaves really no way of enforcing a de-
mand against a widow, unless she have real estate
or ontstaiiding loans, and the rule, if fully enforced, I
would have destroyed the credit of widow traders. I

The Mi.shnah gives tiie measure of a debtor's ex-
emptions in dealing with the demands of the treas-
urer of the Sanctuary, as shown under Esti.matk.
Here the exemption is based on Lev. xxvii. 8
(Ilebr.): "If thy I)rother has comedown" (become
poor), etc. (see 'Ar. 24a).

B. 8. L. N. D.

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pledges

Historical View : In ancient Israel every

loan was an act of charity. Therefore, if the cred-
itor had taken a garment as a pledge he had to return
it before nightfall, whether he had received pay-
ment or not (Ex. xxii. 26-27; Dout. xxiv. 13-14).
The Talmud (B. M. 14b) explains this to include
every article ■which can not be spared, so that the
garment needed during the day must be returned
before morning, and the garment needed at night
must be returned before nightfall. Similarly, the law
wliich prohibits the taking of a millstone as a pledge
{Deut. xxiv. 6) is explained as applicable to every ar-
ticle which is as necessary as a millstone (Sif re, I.e. [ed.
Friedmann, p. 123a]). Therefore the creditor should
not make any use of the pledge ; and he is responsible
for its safety, just as every depositary is responsible
for things held in trust (Hoshen Mishpat, 72).

The development of money-lending among the

Jews as their almost exclusive occupation, which

began in the twelfth century, was in

Medieval all likelihood the consequence of the

Times. persecutions during the First Crusade
(Honiger, "'Zur Gesch. der Juden im
Frilhern Mittelalter," in "Zeitschrift fur Gesch. der
Juden in Deutschland," i. 65-97, 136-151); and the
laws of pawnbroking became more and more detailed.
This is shown by the fact that the charter granted
by Henry IV. to the Jews of Speyer and Worms
(1084-90) does not mention money-lending as an oc-
cupation of the Jews at all, while the charter of
Frederick II. of Austria (1244) devotes nine of its
thirty sections to the regulation of pawnbroking.
This negative evidence is strengthened by the fact
that in the ninth century the anti-Jewish writers
Agobard and Amui.o, who were so bitter in their de-
nunciation of the Jews, are silent on this point. It
remains evident, therefore, that loaning money on
pledges, as money-lending in general, has been the
occupation of the Jews only since the twelfth century,
when St. Bernard of Clairvaux condemned the per-
secution of the Jews, saying that where there were
no Jews, Christian usurers acted much worse
(Migne, "Patrologia," clxxxii. 567; Aronius, "Rc-
gesten," p. 112; Gratz, "Gesch." vi. 166; Stobbe,
"Die Juden in Deutschland," p. 107).

The law of Frederick II. of Austria expressly
permits Jews to take any article as a pledge, without
inquiring into the right of possession of the bor-
rower; the exception to this is that bloody or wet
garments may not be accepted, for in such a case
suspicion of robbery is reasonable. On the " Privile-
gium Fridericianum " were based such later laws as
that i.ssuod by Ottocar II. of Bohemia in 1254, the
laws of Bela IV. of Hungary, of the dukes of Silesia
and Poland, and a prohibition against lending money
on sacred objects — Pope Gregory I. (590-604) and
Charlemagne (806) had already declared that such
olijects should not be sold to Jews. A similar pro-
hibition is found in a law issued by Philip August
of France (1206). The rabbinical synods of the
twclftii and thirteenth centuries adopted the same
law, evidently because of the excuse which the dis-
covery of church articles in a Jewish liouse would
give for riots (Griltz, "Gesch." vi. 199). This prin-
ciple is often repeated in legislations of the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries.

In general, legislation concerning the Jews recog-
nized the rabbinical law, even in dealings between
Jews and Christians ; so a Jew who had
Rabbinical advanced money on a stolen article was
Law. entitled to recover the amount he liad
loaned on it, including interest, if he
could swear that he did not know it had been stolen.
The same held good with regard to 8t(jlen property
which had been bought. This law is explained by
the Talmud as necessitated by the needs of buBiness
life (pltJ^n njpn ; B. K. 11.5a; Hoshen .Mishpat, 857.
1). Various German laws demanded that the goods
must have been delivered in daytime and without
any secrecy ("unveriiohlen und unverstohlen ").
This recognition of tlie rabbinical law was fiercely
condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities — e.g., by
the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and by various
diocesan synods— as favoring the Jews at the ex-
pense of the Christians, who were compelled by law
to return stolen property wliich they had bought, but
without any prospect of indemnity. The "Privi-
legium Fridericianum" (§ 7), and a great many
other laws, freed the Jewish pawnbroker from re-
sponsibility in case of the lo.S3 of the pledge by fire
or robbery, or in any other way. The manner and
fact of loss, however, had to be established by oath
or through witnesses. This legal enactment is in
conflict with the rabbinical law wliich considers the
pawnbroker as a depositary (^Dt^' 1D1{J'), i.e., re-
sponsible in case of death or theft (Hoshen MishpaJ,
72, 2). _

While the state law in this case is more favorable
to the pawnbroker than is the rabbinical law, in re-
gard to the unredeemed pledge it is more favorable
to the debtor. The rabbinical law declares that the
pledge is forfeited if it is not redeemed on the day
the payment falls due (Hoshen Mishpat, 73, 13),
though some authorities demand that the pledge
shall not be sold until thirty days after payment falls
due {lb. 3, 14). The " Priviiegium Fridericianum "
(t^ 27), however, demanded that the pledge should
be kept one year and one day. This stipulation was
adopted in many places up to the fifteenth century.
The privilege of lending money on pledges carried
with it a certain obligation. Thus the Augsburg
law declares that every Jewish money-
Special lender is bound to advance money on
Regu- a pledge to the extent of two-thirds of
lations. its value; while the city of Wintertluir
found it necessary to declare, in a
charter of 1340, that a Jew is not liable to i)unisli-
ment if he is unable to lend a Ciiristian the sum de-
manded (Stobbe, "Die Juden in Deut.scliiand." pp.
\\%et seq.). The Strasburg law of 1375 makes it the
duty of the Jews to lend money on pledges to any
citizen.

In the frequent anti-Jewish riots which occurred
from the twelfth to the fifteenth century the mob
sacking the houses of the Jews often took the
pledges, and, as a rule, the king issued quitclaims
after he had received part of the plunder. This
was done very frequently by Charles IV., after
the Black Death (1348-51). A typical instance is
that of NOrdi.ikgen. Under these circumstances it
is not to be wondered at that Jewish law at that
period dealt with the Christian debtor as with an

Pledges
Plessner

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

enemy in war. Thus medieval rabbis decided that
if a non-Jew loaned to a Jew money on a pledge,
and then lost the pledge, and a Jew found it, the
latter should return it to the Jewish debtor (Hoshen
Mishpat. 72, 38). Similarly, the law permits a Jew-
ish creditor to keep the pledge after the death of
the Christian debtor, even where its value much ex-
ceeds the amount of the debt (ib. 73, 40).

The Jewish concern with pledges is especially
connected with the Italian "monte di pieta," pawn-
shops established by the ecclesiastical authorities in
the fifteenth century, in opposition to Jewish money-
lenders and for charitable purposes. The name is
found also in French ("'mont de piete")and in Latin
("mons pietatis"; lit. "mountain of charity"); it
is supposed to have originated from the use of the
word "monte " in tlie sense of "store " or "stock of
goods," and especially with regard to banking, in
the sense of a " pile of coin."

The great change of economic conditions in the
fifteentli century in connection with the troubles in
the Church created among the mendicant orders an
eager desire to bring themselves into prominence.
The Franciscans were especially active in promoting
schemes for economic improvement.
Monte Barnabas of Terni began preaching

di Pieta. against money-lenders in Perugia, and
succeeded in forming a company of
citizens who furnished money for a loan-bank which
would lend at a lower rate of interest than that
charged by the Jews. This first "mountain of
piety " was founded in 1462, and others followed
very soon in various cities of Italy ; that in Orvieto,
1464, was sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV. Espe-
cially active was the Franci.scau Bi^rnardinus of
Feltre, who worked for the promotion of the pop-
ular pawnshops, chiefly in order to create an oppor-
tunity to attack the Jews. The Dominicans, jeal-
ous of the success of the Franciscans, opposed this
movement, claiming that the exaction of even a low
rate of interest was contrary to the Christian law ;
while the Lateran Council (1512-17) and the Council
of Trent (1545-63), as well as various popes, declared
for the Franciscans.

But in Rome, which was under the direct govern-
ment of the pope, such institutions were not organ-
ized. While the operations of tiie loan-banks inter-
fered with the business of the Jews, they were not
able to drive the Jews to abandon mone^^-lending
altogether; and therefore a special law was passed
by the "signoria" of Venice, in 1547, prohibiting
money-lending by Jews in Padua. In Istri.\, Jews
who had lost their business opportunities elsewhere
were privileged to conduct loan-banks. So in
Pirano. in 1484, where a bank was founded by Moses
Sacerdote and three others; it continued its opera-
tions until 1634, when a monte di pietd was estab-
lished and their privilege was witlidniwn. In Capo
d'Istria, Jewish money-lenders were called upon
when tlie monte di pieti\ liad become bankrupt. In
1611 France introduced the system, but tiiere it had
no anti-Jewish purpose. Since the middle of the
eighteenth century the restrictions against Jewish
money-lenders in Italy have been removed.

In the fifteenth century tiie business of the Jews
consisted chiefly in pawnbroking, as Israel Isserlein

states (" Teruniat ha-Deshen, " part i. , No. 309). They
dealt with all classes of people, even with princes
and kings. King Rupert (1403) pawned his silver
to Jews (Stobbe, I.e. p. 240); the empress Maria,
widow of Maximilian II., pawned her
In silver to Mordecai Meisel (1578) for

Germany. 2,000 florins ("Zeit. filr Gesch. der Ju-
den in Deutschland," ii. 175). From
the fifteenth century on, however, the restriction of
money-lending by Jews became the rule. In 1530
and 1544 respectively, the Reichstags of Augsburg
and Speyer issued strict regulations in regard to ex-
cessive rates of interest and other abuses (see Josel
OF Roshei.m). The Landesordnung for Bohemia,
1579, restricted the monej'-lending of the Jews to
pawnbroking in order to exclude them from banking
on a larger scale ("Zeit. filr Gesch. der Juden in
Deutschiand," ii. 173).

The Judenstattigkeit of PYankfort-on-the-Main,
1614, limited the rate of interest for loans on pledges
to 8 i)er cent ; the same was done for Fulda in 1615
{ib. iii. 178). How precarious this business was
even then is proved by Gliickel von Hameln, who
tells in her memoirs of an attempt to take a pledge
from her father's shop by force. The danger in
dealing with creditors of this class evidently induced
some medieval rabbis to permit a pawnbroker to
redeem a pledge for a creditor on the Sabbath (Orah
Hayyim, 325, 3).

With the development of the banking business
through the court Jews in the seventeenth century,
and the gradual concession of economic freedom,
pawnbroking among the Jews became rare, and, in
fact, in recent times, disreputable (see also Bank-
ing).

Bibliography: Slnilhan 'Anik, JJnshen Mishpat, 7^7,?;
Zeitschrift filr Gesch. der J^ideJi in Deutschland^ i. 6.S-97.
136-151; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland Wilhrend des
Mittelalters, pp. 112-131, Brunswick, 1866; Scherer, Die
Bechtsverhdltni.tse der Juden in den Dentsch-Oesterreich-
iVsc/ien LUndern, pp. 196-209. 211-216, Leipsie, 1901; Ceretti.
Stnria di Monti di Pieta, Padua, 17.52; Ciscato, GU Ehrei
in Pad(nm. pp. 48-67, 245-247, Padua, 1901 ; iVuora Enciclo-
pedia Itnliana, s.v. Monte di Pietd (where further literature
is quoted ) .

D.
PLEIADES : The word "Kimah," which occurs
in three passages in the Bible (Job ix. 9, xxxviii.
31, and Amos v. 8), each time in connection witii
Orion, is translated by the Septuagint once by
n?.Eta6n (Job xxxviii. 31); and Aquila, who repre-
sents the tradition of the scribes, gives the same
rendering in Amos v. 8, being followed therein by
Synnnachus and Theodotion. The word is retained
in the Targum, which indicates that it was then
used in the vernacular; so that the meaning given
the term in the Talmud and by Aquila may be ac-
cepted as correct. Although the etymology is not
altogether certain, it may be assumed that "Kimali"
is connected either with the Hebrew D13 = "to
heap up," or with the Assyrian "kaniu" = "he
bound" (Dclitzsch, in "Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch."
xii. 185).

According to the Talmud (Ber. 58b), this cluster
is called " Kimaii " liecause it consists of about 100
stars CnD'3 = HKOD). The constellation i^ in the
nortliern sky, with its tail to tiie west of the Milky
Way (ib. ; comp. Pes. 94b). For tlie most impor-
tant reference to the Pleiades, which have always

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pledges
Plessner

attracted attention on account of their brilliancy and
number, see OuioN (comp. also Jew. Encyc. ii. 249b,
8.V. Astuongmy).

Bini.iOGRAPiiY : Sfhiiiparelli, U Antronomia nelV Ajiticn Tex-
lamenti), p. 79, Milan, mr.i ; HastlnRs. Diet. Bible, til. 896;
Hainburfrer, R. D. T. ii. W).
K. L. B.

PLESSNER, ELIAS : German rabbi ; son of
Solomon Plessnek; born Feb. 19, 1841, at Berlin;
died at Ostrowo March 30, 1898. He studied at the
University of Berlin, and received his degree as
Ph.D. from the University of Tiibingen (1870). In
1871 he was appointed "Stiftsrabbiner " at Hanover,
and was called April 20, 1873, to the old community
of Rogasen as successor to Moses Feilchenfeld. In
Sept., 1885, he was called to Ostrowo as successor to
the late I. M. Freimann, remaining there until his
death.

Plessner rendered great services to homiletic liter-
ature by publishing the following works by his
father: "Sabbathpredigten," "Festreden," and
"Nachgelassene Schriften " (Frankfort, 1884). His
own works include: In German: "Stellung 'und
Bedeutungder Israel itischen Frau bei den Hebraern "
(Ostrowo) ; " Der Grabstcin in Seiner HOheren Bedeu-
tung"; "Ezechiel Landau und Moses Mendelssohn."
In Hebrew: "Matbea' shel Bcrakot " ; " 'Asa rah
Ma'amarot"; "Dibre Tanirurim we-Tauhumim,"
Posen, 1871 ; "She'elah u-Teshubah be-'Inyan Bel.ii-
rah," Berlin, 1889; "Hitmannut Kohen Gadol," Ber-
lin, 1895.

s. I. Bro.

PLESSNER, SOLOMON: German preacher
and Jiible commentator; born at Breslau April 23,
1797; (lied at Posen Aug. 28, 1883. Having lost his
father when very young, Plessner had to support
his mother and himself. He engaged in business,
but found time to study Hebrew, rabbinics, and
German, under Wessely's influence. At the age of
seventeen Plessner began to study Wesseiy's He-
brew translation of the Apocrypha, resolving to con-
tinue the translation himself. He indeed published
at Breslau in 1819 his Hebrew translation of the
Apocryphal additions to the Book of

Becomes Esther, under the title "Hosafah li-

Eminent Megillat/ Ester, " with a literary-histor-

as a ical introduction. At the same time

Preacher, he became known as an eloquent

preacher. Many of his sermons were

published, among them his funeral oration on the

death of Abraham Tiktin, bearing the Hebrew title

"Zeker Zaddik li-Berakah " (Breslau, 1821).

Plessner through his sermons was recognized as a
warm defender of Orthodox Judaism, and on this
account was congratulated by Akiba Eger, rabbi of
Posen. Soon the conflict arose between the Ortho-
do.x and Reform Jews concerning the introduction
of the organ into the synagogal services. Plessner
naturally fought against the Reform leaders; and as
they were the more powerful and began to perse-
cute him, forbidding him through the police to de-
liver any sermon, he in 1823 settled at Fcstenberg,
a small town in Silesia. In 1825, the government of
the province of Posen having issued a decree for-
bidding Talmudic instruction in schools, Plessner,
at Eger's request, summed up all tlie observations

and opinions of Christian scholars, beginning with
Jerome, on the Talmud. This document, pub-
lished the same year at Breslau un-
His Mem- iler the title "Ein Wort zu Seiner
oir on the Zeit oder die Autoritat df r Judischen
Talmud. Traditionslehre," with a part of ii in
H.ljrcw entitled "'Edut le-Yisruel,"
was in 1826 presented to the Poseu govi-rnmont.
Accompanied with a petition signed by the presi-
dents of several eonununities, it proved eflicacious;
and the anti-Taimudic decree was revoked.

In 1830 Plessner removed to Berlin, where for a
short time he was a teacher in the normal school.
Although possessing all the knowledge necessary
for an Orthodox rabbi, lie persistently declined
rabbinical oflice, preferring freedom of speech. He
earned a livelihood by preaching every other Satur-
day in the Berlin bet ha-midrash, continuing at the
same time his study of the Apocrypha. In 1h;j2 his
"Nozelim Min Lebanon " was published in Berlin.
This work consisted of a Hebrew translation of a
part of the Apocrypha, with an appendix, entitled
"Duda'im," containing exegetical notes, verses in
Hebrew and German, and sermons (see Geiger,
"Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol." i. 204 et xeq.). The fol-
lowing year he was invited to dedicate the new
S3'nagogue at Bromberg, for which occasion he com-
posed poems in Hebrew and in German, which were
published under the title "Shirim la-Hanukkat Bet
ha-Tefillah " (Berlin, 1834). In his sermons Ple-ssner
adopted the expressions of the most eminent Chris-
tian preachers, interspersing his sen-
Removes fences with verses of Schiller and
to Goethe, and rejecting the derashic or

Berlin. homiletic interpretation of the Bible.
In 1834 he began to publish his ser-
mons in yearly volumes under the general title ** Be-
lehrungen und Erbauungen " (2d ed. Berlin, 1840.
under the title "Religi5se VortrUge"). In 1838
Plessner published his "Dat Mosheh wi-Yehudit," a
catechism in twelve parts, preceded by an introduc-
tion, on the nature and history of Jewisli religious
instruction. His oratorical talent is particularly ex-
hibited in his "Mikra'e Kodesh "(Berlin, 1841). a col-
lection of holy-day sermons for the years 1835 to 1^39.
A powerful party of antagonists worrying Plessner
beyond endurance on account of his outspokenness,
he left Berlin and settled at Posen (1843). where he
was active as a preacher for forty years. In Posen
Plessner preached chiefly at the Neuschul. During
his residence in that city he publishfd the following
works: " Shay la-Mora " (Posen, ls4t'.j, poem in honor
of Moses Montefiore ; "Shire Zimrah " (Berlin. 1859),
poems composed on the occasion of
Settles in the completion of the publication of
Posen. the Talmud by the Talmud society
Hebrat Shas; "Shire Zimrah" (•*.
1865), Hebrew poems eompo.sed for the celebration
of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the
foundation of the society of niohelim.

After Plessner's death two collections of his ser-
mouswere published at Frank fort-ont he-Main: "Sab-
bathpredigten " (1884) and " Festpredigten " (1890).

Bibliography: Furst. nOtl. Jud. III. 107: H. Hlrnrhf«'Id. in
Elii'5 PlessntT, UihliKchis uiul Uohhiiiisrhfs nus Sn/omon
I'hssncrs yachlasac ; ZeitUn. VilA. I>o»l-Mftidrls ]>. 271.

g M. Skl.

Pletsch
Plymouth

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PLETSCH, SOLOMON : German physician of
the fuurieeuth aud tiftceuth centuries; a native of
Regensburg. Pletsch was in 1394 appointed city
surgeon of Frankfort-on-the-Main with a salary of
36 gulden per year. Besides, the city furnished him
with six ells of cloth for his uniform, which was of
the same color and quality as that of the Christian
officials. Thus the only difference between Pletsch
and his Christian predecessors and successors was
in the form of the oath, the former taking it More
Judaico. In the letter of commission, Pletsch
bound himself to treat gratuitously all the members
of the council with their servants and all the sick
Jews who might be received at the hospital, and to
take moderate fees from the citizens.

Bibliography: M. Horovltz. jadische Aerztein Frankfurt-
am-Main, P- 6, Frankfort-on-the-Maln, 1886; Landau,
Gesch. der JUdischen Aerzte, p. 10"_', Berlin, 1895.
D. M. Sel.

PLOCK (PLOTZK) : Government in Russian
Poland, with a Jewish population (1897) of 50,473
(in a total population of 553,094), which is the
smallest Jewish population of any government in
the Pale of Settlement.

The most important of the district towns in the
government of Plock are:

Mlawa, which has 5,123 Jews in a total pop-
ulation of 11,211 (1897). R. Jehiel Michael Sagalo-
vich (born 1862) became the rabbi of the community
in 1894.

Plock, the capital of the government, which had
only about 6,000 inhabitants in 1816 (when it came
under Russian domination, after having been held by
Prussia under the provisions of the second partition
of Poland in 1793), had a total population of 27,073
in 1897. Of this number more than 10,000 are Jews.
In the city there are several synagogues, a Talmud
Torah (founded 1868), a Gemilut Hasadim (founded
1873), and a well-equipped hospital. It has also a
Jewish boys' school attended by more than one hun-
dred pupils. Instruction in the Hebrew faith is im-
parted to Jewish students attending the local gym-
nasium by A. J. Papierno, a prominent Maskil Avho
has resided in Plock since 1870, and who established
a library there in 1900.

Owing to the influence of the Hasidim the Jewish
community of Plock frequently changed its rabbis
during the nineteenth century, and the term of sev-
enteen years during which R. Azriel Aryeh Rakovski
held that position, which he resigned in 1880, was con-
sidered an extremely long one. Aryeh L5b Zunz or
Zuenz also was rabbi of Plock and later of Praga, but
removed to Warsaw, where he died April 22, 1833.
Since 1897 R. Ezekicl Libshitz (l)orn in Rossienny,
in the province of Kovno, in 18G4), son of R. Hillcl
Libshitz of Lublin, and who, like his father, is a Tal-
mudi.stand able scholar, has been the rabbi of Plock.

Przasnysz, with 4,500 Jews among its 8,586 in-
habitants; it has two synagogues.

Sierpce, with about 600 Jewish families among
its 8,560 inhabitants. The Jews of Sierpce are bur-
dened with a tax of 68 rubles which they have to
pay annually to the owner of the town on account
of a debt said to have been contracted by a certain
David, of whose origin nothing is known (''Ha-
Meliz," 1883, No. 105).

Bibliography : Brockhaus-Efron, Entziklopedichcshi Slo-
var, S.V.; Ha-Melif, 1ST8. No. 9; 1888. No. 33; 1890, No. 200;
Ha-^cnrah, 1876, No. 4 ; 1900. No. 44 ; Yevnin. yahalat 'Ol-Ji-
mim, pp. 14-15. Warsaw. 1882; Walden, Shem h'a-OeduUm
he-Hadash, p. 80, Warsaw, 1883.
H. K. P. Wl.

PLOTKE, JULIUS : German lawyer and com-
munal worker; born at Borek, province of Posen,
Oct. 5, 1857; died at Frankfort-on-the-Main Sept.
27, 1903. Having finished his studies at the gymna-
sium at Krotoschin and the University of Berlin, he
practised law in Bockcnheim from 1885 to 1888,
when he entered into partnership with Councilor of
Justice S. Fuld in Frankfort-on-the-Main. Plotke
was elected to the board of trustees of the Frankfort
congregation, and participated in all movements for
the relief of his oppressed coreligionists, being a
trustee of the Jewish Colonization Association, of
the Alliance Israelite Uuiverselle, of the Ililfsverein
der Deutschen Juden, and similar organizations.
He wrote various pamphlets and articles on the con-
dition of the Jews of Russia and Rumania.

Bibliography: JlUUsche Presse, 1903, pp. 441-442; Oester-
reichische Troc/ie»isr7iriff, 1903, pp. 64*-649; Jew. Chron.
Oct. 2, 1903, p. 33 : AUg. Zeit. des Jud. 1903, pp. 484-485.

s. D.

PLOWING : No description of the plow (" maha-
reshet ") is found in the Bible ; but it may be assumed
with certainty that the implement resembled, on the
whole, the very simple plow which is still used by
the fellahs of Palestine. It consists of a long pole
with a wooden crosspiece at the lower end, and a
handle parallel to the latter at the upper end, by
means of which the plow is guided. The wooden
foot ends in an iron share, slightly convex above, be-
ing 34 cm. long and 18 cm. wide at the back. This
point has to be sharpened occasionally (com p. I Sam.
xiii. 20). Itisuncertain whether the "et" mentioned
in the passage just cited is a different kind of plow
from that described above; Fr. Delitzsch takes
" et " to be the plowshare, which cuts the furrows,
while the plow itself casts up the earth. As the
fellahs generally do not remove the stones from the
fiehls, thinking that the soil thereby retains the
moisture for a longer period, that kind of plow is
not wholly impractical, since it may readily be
drawn through the stony soil. Moreover, this plow
is easily used, being light enough to be lifted out of
the furrow with one hand and to be replaced in the
same way. Its disadvantage is that it does not plow
deeply enough — only about 8 to 10 cm. — the laud
being therefore neither sufficiently utilized nor prop-
erly freed from weeds. As a consequence the latter
grow rankly, and the grain requires additional han-
dling before it can be used or brought to market.

The plow was drawn, as it commonly still is to-
day, by a yoke of oxen, and on light soil by an ass
(Isa. XXX. 24, xxxii. 20); but the yoking together of
ox and ass, which is not seldom seen to-day, was
forbidden, at least at the time of the Deuterononiist
(comp. Deut. xxii. 10). The ox walks in front of
the plow, usually in the yoke which is attached to
the beam. To-day the yoke is fastened to the neck
of the animal in such a way that the two blocks of
wood which extend on each side of the neck from
the yoke downward may be fastened at the lower
end by a rope and the ox's neck be enclosed in a

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PletBch
Plymouth

frame. The plower liolds in liis riglit hand tlie
plow-handle and the guiding-rope, and in iiis left
the ox-goad ("malmad"; Judges iii. 31; I Sam.
xiii. 21). To one end of the latter is attached an iron
point, with whicli the o.xen are goaded to quicken
;heir pace, and to the other end is fastened a small
ron shovel which is used to remove the earth cling-
ng to the plowshare.

In ancient times, as to-day, it was doubtless hardly
uitlicient to plow the fallow land once only, but it
lad to be gone over three times. The first plowing
in the winter) was followed by a second (in the
spring), and a third (in tlie summer); the careful
lusbandman even plowed a fourth time (late in the
mmmer). After the plow had turned the soil over, the
atter was made smooth by a harrow, which perhaps
consisted merely of a strong board or a roller (Hos.
c. 11; Isa. xxviii. 4).

3iBi,ioGRAPHY : Z. D. p. V. ix. 24 et seq.

K. G. II.

PLUM. See Peach.

W. N.

PLUNGIAN : Old town in the government of
Kovno, district of Telshi, Russia. Among the ear-
ier rabbis of Plungian were Jacob b. Zebi, a resi-
lent of Grodno, who gave his approbation to his
,rounger brother's work, "Ohole Yehudah " (Jess-
litz, 1719), and Dob Bar, who in 1726 addressed a
lalakic question to R. Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen of
\ltona (responsa "Keueset Yehezkel," No. 7, Al-
;oua, 1732). Its most prominent rabbi in the nine-
;eenth century was Jehiel Heller, who died there
n 1861. Ilillel Libschitz (b. 1844), formerly of Su-
ivalki and now (1905) rabbi of Lublin, officiated at
Plungian from 1878 to 1880. Its rabbi at the be-
ginning of the present century was Zebulon Loeb
Barit (see "Ha-Zefirah," 1897, Nos. 40, 56), who died
n 1903.

Other prominent men who came from or were
ictive in Plungian were: Zechariah Plungian or
5imner (d. 1715), author of " Sefer Zekirah " (1st ed.
[^lamburg, 1709), on religious ethics and folk-medi-
cine, which passed through many editions; Moide-
;ai b. Joseph (great-grandson of Mordecai Jaffe
"" Lebush "]), and his son Joseph, " rosh mediuah " of
Plungian in the eighteenth century (see Jaffe
family). Mordecai Plungian (originally Plungian-
ski), also a descendant of the Jaffe family, and one
)f the most prominent Maskilim of the nineteenth
century, was born at Plungian in 1814.

A record of the proceedings before R. Dob Bar
Jaffe, dayyan of Plungian, and of the decisions ren-
lered by him, is preserved in the New York Pub-
lic Library. Its earliest entry is dated 1856, and the
latest 1881.

The population of Plungian, which is mostly Jew-
ish, numbered 3,593 in 1873, and 3,583 in 1897.

Bibliography : Brockhaus-Kfron. EntziklopedicheshiSlm^ar;
F.isenstadt-Wiener, Da'at Kedosliiw, pp. 34, 35, St. Peters-
burg, 1897-98.

H. K. P. Wl.

PLUNGIAN (PLUNGIANSKI), MORDE-
CAI (MARCUS): Russian Hebraist and autiior;
born at Plungian, in the government of Wilna,
1814; died at Wilna Nov. 28, 1883. He was a
descendant of Mordecai Jaffe, author of the "Lebu-

shim." Wliile still young Plungian became a Tai-
mudist of high repute. After a couple (if years
of an uniiapi)y married life he left his native 't(jwn
and settled at Troki. where lie devoted himself en-
tirely to rabbinical studies. Soon, however, ]ut was
compelled to leave tliat place, having disj)leu8ed
tile ultra-conservatives by liis more or less advanced
ideas. He then went to Wilna, where he earned a
scanty livelihood by delivering rabbinical lectures,
wiiich were greatly appreciated by tlie Talmiidists
of that place. In the meanwiiile Plungian devoted
himself to secular studies also, and accjuired, in
a relatively short time, a thorougli knowledge of
several European languages and literatures. This
acquisition procured for him first the position of
teacher in a higli school, and in 1HC7 that of instruc-
tor in Talmud and religious codes in the rabbinical
seminary at AVilna.

Plungian was very unhappy in his old age. The
rabbinical seminary was closed in 1873, and lie
had no other position than that of corrector in the
printing-office of Romm, which he had held since
1869. In his literary career he had the misfortune
to displease both the Orthodox, who accused him of
heresy, and the liberals, who regarded him as a
conservative; hence he was persecuted liy the
former and repudiated by the latter.

Plungian was the author of the following works:
"Talpiyyot" (Wilna, 1849), on the hermeneutic
rule "Gezerah Shawah " in the Babylonian Talmud,
explaining the logical principles upon which it is
based and criticizing the views expressed on the
subject by Rashi and the tosafists; "Kerem li-
Slielomoh" (ib. 1851), commentary on Ecclcsiastes,
published together with the text; "Ben Porat " {ib.
1858), biography of Manasseh ben Porat, with ex-
egetic and philological dissertations; "Shebet Elo-
ah" (ib. 1862), episode of the eighteenth century,
with arguments against the blood accusation ; "Or
Boker " {ib. 1868), three critical treatises on the
Masorali as interpreted in the Talmud ; " Kerem
li-Shelomoh" (ib. 1877), commentary on Canticles,
published together with the text.

Plungian left several works in manuscript,
among them a treatise on the Hebrew verbs of four
letters, partly published in "Kerem Hemed " (ix.);
and "Ma'amar Mordekai," a commcntar)- on all the
haggadot found in ""En Ya'akob." In addition
Plungian contributed to nearly all the Hebrew peri-
odicals.

BinLiOGRAPHY : Ha-S^hahar, xi. tilo; N. Nathanson, Sefat
Kmet. Warsaw, 1887: Zeitlln, Bibl. Paot-MftuMs. p. U'T-';
Kerem ffemed, ix. 136 ; Ha-Melvf, 1883, Nos. 89. 91.

n. K. I. Bit.

PLYMOUTH : Seaport in the county of Devon,
England; one of the principal ports of that country.
A few Jewish families were living there in 1740.
Among the synagogue deeds is a lease of a garden,
dated 1752, the signature to which is witnessed by
one Jac. Myer Sherrenbek; it evidently refers to the
old burial-ground nt-ar the Citadel. In 1762 the
mayor and commonalty leased to Samuel Chapman
a plot of ground for ninety-nine years; and one
Chapman executed a deed of trust reciting that the
lease had been acquired by him at the sole exjicnso
"of the said J. J. Sherrenbek and Gumpert Michael

Plymouth
Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

e»

Emdon, elders of the Synagogue of the Jews." In
the same year £300 was raised on mortgage "to
complete the buildings, editices, and erections now
building thereon, and which is designed for a Jew-
ish synagogue or place of worship for those profess-
ing the Jewish religion." In 1786 this lease was
surrendered, and a new one was entered into with
live leading Protestant citizens, who held the same
in trust for one A. Joseph. Eleven years later an-
other lease was granted to the following three
Jewish holders: Henry Hart, Joseph Joseph, and
Samuel Hart; and in 1834 the freehold of the syna-
gogue was transferred to other trustees. In 1868 a
new burial-ground, adjoining the Christian ceme-
tery, was acquired; and in 1873 the congregation
purchased the ground on which the synagogue
house now stands.

One of the most prominent of Plymouth Jews
was the late Jacob Nathan, who left a considerable
sum of money to Jewish and Christian local chari-
ties. Among his bequests was one of £13,000
(§65,000) to found and maintain a Jewish school
for the poor. This school was established in 1869,
and has an average attendance of fifteen scholars.
Solomon Alexander Hart, R.A., a native of Plym-
outh, bequeathed £1,000 to the congregation, and
one of his masterpieces, "The Execution of Lady
Jane Grey," to the corporation. It is one of the
chief adornments of the municipal chamber.

The synagogue in Catherine street retains its an-
cient features — a latticed women's gallery, a beauti-
fully carved wooden Ark, antique silver sets of
bells, and old brasswork. It has a membership of 70.
There are, besides the Jacob Nathan Day School,
two Jewish charities, the Ladies' Hebrew Benevo-
lent Society and the Sick Visiting Society. There are
also several Jewish social institutions. The Jews of
Plymouth number about 300 in a total population of
107,500. Except for two families, the present (1905)
Jewish community comprises recent settlers.

Bibliography: Jewish Year Book, 1904.
J.

POBYEDONOSTZEV. See Russia.

L H.

POCHOWITZER (PUCHOWITZER), JU-
DAH LOB ben JOSEPH : Kussiaii rabbi and
preacher ; flourished at Pinsk in the latter part of the
seventeenth century; died in Palestine, whither he
went before 1681. He was the author of : "Keneh
Hokmah" (Frankfort-on-theOder, 1681), a work
consisting of seventeen "derasliot" on penitence;
"Derek Hokmah" (ib. 1683), a treatise in thirty-two
sections on morals; "Dibre Hakamim " (Hamburg,
1692), a work in two parts: the first, entitled " Da'at
Hokmah," being a treatise in four .sections on morals
and asceticism; the second, "Mekor Hokmah," con-
taining notes to the Shullian 'Aruk, Orah Hayyini,
up to No, 240. At the end of this work is a pam-
phlet, entitled "Solet Belulah," containing novella;
on the Talmud. Thirty-two treatises taken from
the above-mentioned works were published in one
volume by Solomon Pinkerle under the title "Kebod
ijakamiiii " (Venice, 1700).

Bim.iOfjRAPHY: Furst, 73i7/J. J?(fMll.l08: Nepl-Ghlrondl, To/c-
clot (li'iUAe YUsrael, p. 189; Steluschnelder, Cat. Bodl. cols.
I*i6- 1.%7.

M. Ski,.

POCOCK, EDWARD: English Christian Ori-
entalist and theologian ; born at Oxford Nov. 8,
1604; died there Sept. 12, 1691. He studied Orien-
tal languages at Oxford and elsewhere; was chap-
lain of the English "Turkey Merchants" in Aleppo
from 1630 to 1636; and became professor of Arabic
at Oxford in 1636. He spent the period from 1637
to 1640 in Constantinople, and on returning to Eng-
land in 1647 resumed liis professorship of Arabic at
Oxford; he became professor of Hebrew, also, ia
1649, which position he held until his death, al-
though frequently attacked for political reasons.
During his stay in the East he collected many valu-
able manuscripts, among them one of the Samaritan
Pentateuch.

Among Pocock's works may be mentioned
"Porta Mosis" (Oxford, 1655), a translation of six
sections of Maimonides' commentary on the Mish-
nali (Arabic text in Hebrew characters, with Latin
translation). This was tlie tirst book printed in
Hebrew characters in Oxford. In 1657 was pub-
lished Walton's polyglot edition of the Bible, for
which Pocock collated manuscripts of the Arabic
Pentateuch and furnished notes explaining the dif-
ferent Arabic versions,

Pocock was the author of the following commen-
taries: on Micah and Malachi (Oxford, 1677); on
Hosea (ib. 1685); and on Joel (ib. 1691). These
commentaries evidence the wide extent of Pocock's
knowledge of Hebrew language and science, rab-
binical and sacred,

BiBMOfiUAPiiY : Twells, The Life of Dr. Edicartl Pocock,
London, 1"40; Allil)one, Diet, of British and Awerican
Aiithors; McClintock and Strong, Cyc.; Dictionary of
National Biography.
T. F. T. H.

PODIEBRAD, DAVID: Austrian writer; born
in 1816; died Aug. 2, 1882. He received his educa-
tion in the yeshibah of Prague and by private tui-
tion. He was especially interested in the history
of the Jews in Prague, where for thirty years he
occupied the position of secretar}' of the hebra
kaddisha. He collected many manuscripts and me-
morials concerning the Jews of Prague. He pub-
lished Benedict Foges' work, " Altertilmer der Prager
Josefstadt," Prague, 1870, which was based mainly
on documents collected by Podiebrad.

s. A. Ki.

PODIVIN. See Kostel.

PODOLIA : Government in southwestern Rus-
sia, on the Austrian frontier (Galicia). It is a center
of many important events in the history of the Rus-
sian Jews. Polish and Russian documents of 1550
mention Jewish communities in Podolia, but from
tombstones discovered in .some towns of the govern-
ment it is evident that Jews had lived there much
earlier. (For the earlier historj^ see Lithuania and
Russia; for the sufferings of the Jews in the middle
of the seventeenth century see Cossacks' Upkisino ;
for the revolt of the I'kruinians against the Jews of
Podolia in the eighteenth century see IlAiDAMArKS.)
Ruined by persecutions lasting for centuries, Podolia
became the breeding-place of superstition and re-
ligious intolerance, which flourished there more than
in any other place within the Pale. Owing to the
extremely impoverished condition of its Jews, Shab-

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plymouth
Poetry

bethai Zebi, the Frankists, and the Hasidim found
in Podolia a most fertile soil for the spread of their
doctrines (see Ba'al Siiem-Tob; Frank, Jacou;
Hasidim). Podolia was annexed to Russia at the
end of the eighteenth century. Tlie Jewish popula-
tion of Podolia in 1887 was 325,907— about 13 per
cent of the general population ; the Jews still live
mostly in small towns and villages. The capital of
Podolia is Kamenetz-Podoi^sk.

Bibliography : Orshanskl, Yevrci v Rossii ; Bershadskl, Li-
tovi>kiye Yevrci; Litinski, Korot ha-Yehtuliin tie-I'odolia
(unreliable); Vonkhod, l»d7 ; Hannover, Yewen Me^itlah.

H. R. S. HU.

Podolia: Population (Census of 1897).

District.

Balta

Bratzlav (Braslavl)

Gaisiii

Kamenetz

Letlchev

Litin

MoRhilef

Ol'tropol

Prokiirov

Ushitza

Vinnltza

Yampol

Total In Government-

Total
Population.

390,()7(i
241,ill9

24S.:i,si)
2m.rm

2lo,:i.")0
2-„'T,<r)i
2H4,r)2:{

22.5,.590
223,478
24H,;it4
2W),34T

3,018,551

Jevsfish
Population.

5.3,075
28,r)47
22,048
37,486
24,3ft5
24,018
;«,119
32,a30
27,401
25,346
;i0,670
27,792

306,.597

Per-
centage.

13.57
11.80
8.88
14.(X!
13.20
11.47
14..55
11.47
12.15
11. :«
12M
10.44

10.12

n. R. V. R.

POETRY.— Biblical : The question whether
the literature of the ancient Hebrews includes por-
tions that may be called poetry is answered by the
ancient Hebrews themselves. A distinction be-
tween different classes of writings is evident in such
a fact as that the section II iSam. xxiii. 1-7 is
designated in the (later) heading as " the last words
of David," although other utterances of this king
are reported as late as I Kings ii. 9 ; it is not known,
however, whether the words of David cited in
II Sam. I.e. are called his "last words" on account
of their substance or of their form. Again, the au-
thor of Ps. xlv. has designated it as a "ma'aseh,"
i.e., "a product"; and this expression corresponds in
a remarkable degree with the Greek nuir/aig, although
he may have applied that term to the psalm only on
account of its contents. But that the ancient He-
brews perceived there were poetical portions in their
literature is shown by their entitling songs or chants
such passages as Ex. xv. 1 et seq. and Num. xxi. 17 et
seq. ; and a song or chant (" shir ") is, according to the
primary meaning of the term, poetry. In the first
place, therefore, these songs of the Old Testament
must be considered if the (jualities that distinguish
the poetical products of the ancient Hebrews from
their oniinary mode of literary presentation arc to be
determined.

Characteristics of Ancient Hebrew Poetry: (1) An-
cient Hebrew poetry contains no rime. Although
the tirst song mentioned above (Ex. xv. 1 et seq.)
contains assonance at the ends of the lines, as in
"anwehu" and "aromemenhu" {ib. verse 2), such
consonance of "hu" (= "him") can not well be
avoided in Hebrew, because many pronouns are
affixed to words. Furthermore, rime occurs only
as sporadically in Hebrew poems as in Shakespeare;
e.g. , in " thing " and " king " at the end of the second

act of " Hamlet." There is no poem in the OKI Tes-
tament with a final rime in every line; ultlioiigh
Hellermann (" Versiich hberdie Metrik derHebrfler,"
1813, p. 210) alludes to an exception, meaning prob-
al)ly l^s. cxxxvi., the rime throughout whielj poem
consists only in the frecjuent repetition of the word
"hasdo." h. Grimme has stJited in his arti<lc
" Durchgereimte Gedichte im A. T." (in Barden-
hewer's "Bibl. Studien," 1901, vi. 1, 2) tliat such
poems are represented by Ps. xlv., liv., and Siraeh
(Ecclus.) xliv. 1-14; but lie regards the consonance
of final consonants as rime, e.g., •'ozueA- " and "ubiA "
(Ps. xlv. 11), while rime proper demands at least tlie
assonance of the preceding vowel.

(2) The empioymenl of unusual forms of lan-
guage can not be considered as a sign of ancient
Hebrew poetry. In the sentences of Noah, f.g.. ((Jen.
ix. 2o-27) the form " lamo " occurs. But this form.

which represents partly "laliem" and

Unusual i^artly " lo," has many count(ri)arls in

Forms. Hebrew grammar, as, for example,

" kemo " instead of "ke" (Ex. xv. 5,
8) ; or " emo " = " them " (ib. verses 9, 15) ; or " cmo "
= "their" (Ps. ii. 3); or "elemo" = " to them"
{ib. verse 5) — forms fount! in pas.sages for which no
claim to poetical expressions is made. Then there
are found " liayeto " = "beast" (Gen. i. 24). "osri"
=: "tying" (ib. xlix. 11), and "yeshu'alah" =
"salvation" (Ps. iii. 3)— three forms that i)rf>bably
retain remnants of the old endings of the nomina-
tive, genitive, and accusj\tive: "u(n)," "i(n),"
"a(n)." Again, in Lamech's words, "Adah and
Zillah, hear my voice; ye wives of Lamecli,
barken unto my speech" (Gen. iv. 23), the two
words "he'ezin " and "imrali " attract atti'ntion, be-
cause they occur for the first time in this passage.
although there had been an earlier opportunity of
using them. " He'ezin " = " to barken " could have
been used just as well as its synonym "shama'"
= "to hear" in Gen. iii. 8, 10 et seq., but its earliest
employment is in the above-cited pas.<yige Gen.
iv. 23. It occurs also in Ex. xv. 26; Num. xxiii.
18 (a sentence of Balaam); Deut. i. 4.'), xxxii. 1;
Judges V. 3; Isa. i. 2, 10; viii. 9; xxviii. 2.1; xxxii.
9; xlii. 23; Ii. 4; Ixiv. 3; Jer. xiii. 15; IIos. v. 1;
Joel i. 2; Neh. ix. 30 (in a prayer); and in H Cliron.
xxiv. 19 (probably an imitation of Isa. Ixiv. 3).
Furthermore, " imrah " = " speech " might have been
used instead of the essentially identiail "dabar" in
Gen. xi. 1 et seq., but its earliest use is, as stated
above, in Gen. iv. 23. It is found also in Deut.
xxxii. 2, xxxiii. 9; II Sam. xxii. 31; Isa. v. 24,
xxviii. 23, xxix. 4, xxxii. 9; Ps. xii. 7, etc.; Prov.
XXX. 5; and Lam. ii. 17. In place of "ailam" =
"man" {Gen. i. 26 et seq.) "enosh" is employed in
Deut. xxxii. 26; Isa. viii. 1; xiii. 7, 12; xxiv. 6;
xxxiii. 8; Ii. 7. 12; Ivi. 2; Jer. xx. 10; Ps. viii. 5,
ix. 20, X. 18. Iv. 14, Ivi. 2, Ixvi. 12, Ixxiii. 5. xc.
3, ciii. 15, civ. 15, cxliv. 3; Job iv. 17; v. 17: vii.
1, 17; ix. 2; x. 4; xiii. 9; xiv. 19; xv. 14; xxv. 4.
6; xxviii. 4.. 13; xxxii. 8; xxxiii. 12, 26; xxxvi. 25;
II Chron. xiv. 10 (comp. the Aramaic "enash" in
Dan. ii. 10; Ezra iv. 11, vi. 11). For a systematic
review of similar unusual forms of Hebrew gram-
mar and Hebrew words occurring in certain por-
tions of the Old Testament see E. KOnig, "Stilis-

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

tik, " etc. , pp. 277-283. Such forms have been called
"dialectus poetica" since the publication of Robert
Lowth's " Prtelectiones de Sacra Poesi Hebraeoruni,"
iii. (1753); but this designation is ambiguous and
can be accepted only in agreement with the rule " a
parte potiori lit denominatio " ; for some of these
unusual forms and words are found elsewhere than
in the "songs" of the Old Testament, as, e.g., the
"hayeto" of Gen. i. 24 mentioned above, which was
probably preferred as an archaic form in the solemn
\itterance of God, while in the following sentences
of the narrator (verse 25) the ordinarj' form " hayyat "
is used.

Again, these unusual forms and expressions do
not occur in all songs (comp. Num. xxi. 17 et seq.
and II Sam. iii. 33 et seq.), and there are several of
the Psalms that have none of these peculiarities, as,
for instance, Ps. cxlix., although the opportunity
to use them existed. The present writer is of opin-
ion that the use of these peculiar forms of expres-
sion is connected more with the tastes of a certain
(earlier) period, when unusual, archaic, and dialectic
forms were chosen to embellish the diction. The fact
that "he'ezin" occurs also in II Chron. xxiv.
19 is explainable likewise on the theory that
poetico-rhetorical expressions later became compo-
nent parts of common speech, as, for example,
"hammah" = "glowing one," a rare expression in
Biblical Hebrew for the sun (Isa. xxiv. 23, etc.), but
one which is frequently used in this sense in the
Mishnah (Ber. i. 2; iii. 5, etc.).

(3) Not even the "parallelismus membrorum" is
an absolutely certain indication of ancient Hebrew
poetry. This " parallelism " is a phenomenon no-
ticed in the portions of the Old Testament that
are at the same time marked fre-
Parallel- quently by the so-called "dialectus
ism. poetica"; it consists in a remarkable

correspondence in the ideas expressed
in two successive verses; for example, the above-
cited words of Lamech, "Adah and Zillah, hear my
voice ; ye wives of Lamech, barken unto my speech "
(Gen. iv. 23), in which are found "he'ezin" and
"imrah," show a remarkable repetition of the same
thought. See Parallelism in Hebrew Poetry.

But this ideal eurythmy is not always present in
the songs of the Old Testament or in the Psalter,
as the following passages will show : " The Lord is
my strength and song, and he is become my salva-
tion " (Ex. XV. 2). "Saul and Jonathan, the beloved
and the lovely, in life and in death they were not
divided" (H. P. Smith, in "International Commen-
tary," on II Sam. i. 23). "Ye daughters of Israel,
weep over Saul, who clothed you in scarlet, and tine
linen " {ib. 24). " And he shall be like a tree planted
by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit
in his .season" (Ps. i. 3; comp. ib. ii. 12); "I laid me
down and slept; I awaked ; for the Lord sustained
me. I will not be afraid of ton thousands of people,
that have set themselves against me round about"
{ib. iii. 6-7 [A. V. 5-6] ; see also ib. iv. 7 et seq., ix. 4
et seq.). Julius Ley ("Leitfaden der Hebraischen
Metrik," 1887, p. 10) says therefore correctly that
"the poets did not consider themselves bound by
parallelism to such an extent as not to set it aside
when the thought required it." This restriction

must be made to James Robertson's view ("The
Poetry of the Psalms," 1898, p. 160): "The distin-
guishing feature of the Hebrew poetry ... is the
rhythmical balancing of parts, or parallelism of
thought. "

(4) The poetry of the ancient Hebrews is not dis-
tinguished from the other parts of the Old Testa-
ment by rhytiun based on quantity,

Q,uantita- though in view of Greek and Roman
tive poetry it was natural to seek such a

Rhythm, rhythm in the songs and Psalms of the
Old Testament. William Jones, for
example ("Poeseos Asiaticae Commentarii," ch. ii.,
London, 1774), attempted to prove that there was a
definite sequence of long and short syllables in the
ancient Hebrew poems; but he could support this
thesis only by changing the punctuation in many
ways, and by allowing great license to the Hebrew
poets. However, on reading the portions of the
Old Testament marked by the so-called "dialectus
poetica" or by parallelism {e.g.. Gen. iv. 23 et seq.)
no such sequence of long and short syllables can
be discovered ; and Sievers (" Metrische Untersuch-
ungen," 1901, §53) says: "Hebrew prosody is not
based on quantity as classical prosodj'' is."

(5) Hebrew poetic form is based on accent. Al-
though Hubert Giimme recognizes this fact, he is in
danger of recurring to the view that quantitative
meter may bo found in ancient Hebrew poetry, hav-
ing recently formulated his rules in his "Metres et
Strophes" (1901, pp. 3 et seq.) and in "Psalmenpro-
bleme " (1902, pp. 4 et seq.). Nivard Schloegl ("Ec-
clesiasticus," 1901, p. xxi.) also adopts this view.
Although both admit that the Hebrew poet regarded
the accented syllables as the chief syllables of the
line, they hold that these syllables contained a
certain number of morte, only a certain number of
which could occur between two accented syllables.
This view is too mechanical, in the present writer's
opinion ; and Sievers also says {I.e. § 81) : " Grimme's
morae are more than questionable."

Gustav Bickell holds that the poetical rhythm of
the Hebrews consisted in the regular succession of
accented and unaccented syllables, saying distinctly :
"The metrical accent falls regularly upon every al-
ternate syllable" ("Z. D. M. G." 1881, pp. 415, 418

et seq.). This statement, however,

Bickell's does not agree with the nature of He-

Recon- brew poetry as it actually exists, as has

struction. nowhere else been more clearly proved

than in Jacob Ecker's "Professor
Bickell's ' Carmina Veteris Testamenti Metrice, ' das
Neueste Denkmal auf dom Kirchhof der Hebra-
ischen Metrik " (1883). Ecker shows in this pam-
phlet that Bickell removed or added about 2,600 syl-
lables in the Psalms in order to obtain the "regular
succession of accented and unaccented syllables."
As illustrating the shortcomings of Bickell's view it
may be pointed out that he holds that the poetic
pcjrtions of the Book of Job are composed in cata-
lectic iambic tetrameters; hence he transcribes Job
xxxii. 6 as follows: "Ca'ir ani lojamim, V'attem
sabim jeshi.shim; 'Al-ken zachalt vaira', Mechav-
vot de'i et'khem " — i.e., he adds the word " zabim,"
and suppresses the afTormative "i " of "zahalti," al-
though the "^ " distinguishes this form from that of

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

the second person singular feminine; hence it is not
surprising tliat Sievers says (Z.c . §55): "I can do
uotiiing further with Bicliell's system."

Mostscliolars now hold that the Hebrew poet con-
sidered only the syllables receiving the main accent,
and did not count the intervening ones. !^xamples
contrary to this are not found in passages where
forms of the so-called "dialectus poctica " are iised,
as Ley holds in his "GrundzUge des Hhythmus,
des Vers- und Strophenbaues in der Hebraischen
Poesie," pp. 99, 116; and the present writer has
proved (in his "Stilistik," etc., p. 833, for example)
that the choice of " lame " instead of " lahem " favors
jn only a few passages the opinion that the poet in-
tended to cause an accented syllable to be followed
by an unaccented one. Such passages are: Gen.
ix. 26 ; Ps. xliv. 4, Ixvi. 7 ; Job xxiv. 17,
Accentual xxxix. 4; and Lam. i. 19. Ley has not
Rhythm, noted that the choice of " lanio " dis-
turbs the mechanical succession of un-
accented and accented syllables in the following pas-
sages: Deut. xxxii. 33, 35; xxxiii. 2; Ps. ii. 4; xxviii.
8; xliv. 11; xlix.l4; Iv. 20; Ivi. 8; Iviii. 5,8; lix. 9;
Ixiv. 6; Ixxiii. 6, 10, 18; Ixxviii. 24, 66; Ixxx. 7;
Ixxxviii. 9; xcix. 7; cxix.165; Prov. xxiii. 20; Job
iii. 14; vi. 19; xiv. 31; xv. 28; xxii. 17, 19; xxiv.
16; XXX. 13; Lam. i. 22; iv. 10, 15 (for other exam-
ples see KOnig, I.e. pp. 333 et seq.). Hence most
scholars now hold that the rhythm of Hebrew poetry
is similar to that of the German "Nibelungenlied"
— a view that is strongly supported by the nature
of the songs sung to-day by the populace of modern
Palestine. These songs have been described by L.
Schneller in his"Kennst Du das Land?" (section
"Musik")in the following words: "The rhythms
are manifold; there may be eight accents in one
line, and three syllables are often inserted between
two accents, the .symmetry and variation being de-
termined by emotion and sentiment." Not less
interesting are G. Dalman's recent observations in
Palestine. He says: "Lines with two, three, four,
and five accented syllables maj' be distinguished,
between which one to three, and even four, unac-
cented syllables may be inserted, the poet being
bound by no definite number in his poem. Occa-
sionally two accented syllables are joined " ("Palas-
tinischer Diw^an," 1901, p. xxiii.).

Such free rhythms are, in the present writer's
opinion, found also in the poetry of the Old Testa-
ment. Under the stress of their thoughts and feel-
ings the poets of Israel sought to achieve merely the
material, not the formal symmetry of correspond-
ing lines. This may be observed, for example,
in the following lines of Ps. ii. : "Serve the Lord
with fear" (" 'Ibdu et-Ynwii be-yir'ah," verse 11),
" rejoice with trembling " (" we-gilu bi-re'adah," ib.).
Tills is shown more in detail by KOnig, I.e. p. 334;
and Cornill has confirmed this view (" Die Metrischen
StQcke des Ruches Jeremia," 1901, p. viii.) by say-
ing: "Equal length of the several stichoi was not
the ba.sic formal law of Jeremiah's metric construc-
tion. " Sievers is inclined to restrict Hebrew rhythm
by various rules, as he attacks (i.e. §§ 52, 88) Budde's
correct view, that "a foot which is lacking i-n one-
half of a verse may find a substitute in the more
ample thought of this shorter line " (" Haudkomnien-

tar zu Hiob." p, xlvii.). Furthermore, the verse of
the Old Testament poetry is naturally iambic or
anapeslic, as the words are accented on one of tlic
final syllables.

A special kind of rhytiim may be ol)Rerved in the
dirges, called by the Hebrews "kinot." A whole
book of these elegies is contained in the Old Testa-
ment, the first of them beginning thus: " IIow duth
the city sit solitary— that was full of people— Ijow
is she become as a widow — she that was great
among the nations — and princess among the prov-
inces—how is she become tributary!" (I^im. i. 1).

The rhythm of such lines lies in the

The fact that a longer line is always fol-

Dirges. lowed by a shorter one. As in the

hexameter and pentameter of Latin
poetry, this change was intended to symbolize the
idea that a strenuous advance in life is followed
by fatigue or reaction. This rhythm, which may
be designated "elegiac measure," occurs also in
Amos V. 2, expressly designated as a kinah. The
sad import of his prophecies induced Jeremiah also
to employ the rhythm of the dirges several times in
his utterances (Jer. ix. 20, xiii. 18 et seq.). He refers
here expressly to the "mekonenot" (the mourning
women) who in the East still chant the death-song
to the trembling tone of the pipe (ib. xlviii. 36 et
seq.). "Kinot" are found also in Ezek. xix. 1 ; xxvi.
17; xxvii. 2; xxxii. 3 et seq., 16, 19 et seq. This
elegiac measure, being naturally a well-known
one, was used also elsewhere, as, for example, in
Ps. xix. 8-10. The rhythm of the kinah has been
analyzed especially by Budde (in Stade's "Zeit-
schrift," 1883, pp. 399 etseq.). Similar funeral songs
of the modern Arabs are quoted by Wetzstein (in
"Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie," v. 298 et seq.), as, e.g. :
"O, if he only could be ransomed! truly, I would
pay the ransom! " (see Kftnig, I.e. pp. 315 et se^.).

A special kind of rhythm was produced by the
frequent employment of the so-called anadiplosis, a
mode of speech in which the phrase at the end of
one sentence is repeated at the beginning of the
next, as, for instance, in the passages " they came not

to the help of the Lord [i.e., to protect

Ana- Yhwh's people], to the help of the

diplosis. Lord against the mighty " (Judges

v. 23; comp. "zidkot" [il>. 11a] and
" nilhamu " \ib. 19a-20a, b]), and " From whence shall
my help come? ]SIy help cometh from the Lord"
(Ps. cxxi. lb-2a, K. V.). Many similar passages
occur in fifteen of the Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv.. which
also contain an unusual number of epanalepses, or
catch-words, for whicii the present writer has pro-
posed the name " LeittOne." Thus there is the repe-
tition of"shakan"in Ps. cxx. 5.6: of "shalom"
in verses 6 and 7 of the same chapter; and the catch-
word "yishmor" in Ps. cxxi. 7. 8 (all the cases are
enumerated in KOnig. I.e. p. 302). As the employ-
ment of such repetitions is somewhat suggestive of
the mounting of stairs, the superscription "shir
ha-ma'alot," found at the beginning of these fifteen
psalms, may have a double meaning: it may indicate
not only the purpose of these songs, to be sung on the
pilgrimages to the festivals at Jerusalem, but also
the peculiar construction of the songs, by which
the reciter is led from one step of the inner life to

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

the next. Such graduated rhythm may be observed
elsewhere ; for the peasants in modern Syria accom-
pany their national dance by a song the verses of
which are connected like the links of a chain, each
verse beginning with the final words of the prece-
ding one (Wetzstein, I.e. v. 292).

Alphabetical acrostics are used as an external em-
bellisliment of a few poems. The letters of the
alphabet, generally in their ordinary sequence, stand
at the beginning of smaller or larger sections of Ps.
ix.-x. (probably), xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxi., cxii.,
cxix.,cxlv. ; Prov. xxxi. 10-31 ; Lam.
Acrostics, i.-iv. ; and also of Sirach (Ecclus.) li.
13-29, as the newly discovered He-
brew text of this book has shown (see Acrostics,
and, on Ps. xxv. and xxxiv. especially, Ilirsch in
"Am. Jour. Semit. Lang." 1902, pp. 167-173). Al-
phabetical and other acrostics occur frequently in
Neo-Hebraic poetry (Winter and Wiinsche, " Die
JiidischeLiteraturseit Abschlussdes Kauons," 1894-
1896, iii. 10). The existence of acrostics in Bab}'-
lonian literature has been definitely proved (II.
Zimmern, in "Zeitschrift fiir Keilschriftforschung,"
1895, p. 15); and alphabetical poems are found also
among the Samaritans, Syrians, and Arabs. Cicero
says ("De Divinatione," II., liv.) that the verse of
the sibyl was in acrostics; and the so-called "Orac-
ula Sibyllina" contain an acrostic in book 8, lines
217-250.

A merely secondarj' phenomenon, which distin-
guishes a part of the poems of the Old Testament
from the other parts, is the so-called "accentuatio
poetica"; yet it calls for some mention, because ii
has been much slighted recently (Sievers, I.e. ^ 248,
p. 375). Although not all the poetical portions of
the Okl Testament are marked by a special accentu-
ation, it is noteworthy that the Book of Job in iii.
3-xlii. 6 and the books of Psalms and Proverbs
througiiout have received unusual accents. This
point will be further discussed later on.

Correct in.sight into the rhythm of the poetry of
the Old Testament did not die out entirely in Jew-
ish tradition; for Judah ha-Levi says (in his "Cu-
zari,"ed, in Arabic and German by II.
Survivals Ilirschfeld, 1885-87, ii., §§ 69 ct seq.):
of '' ' Hodu le-Yawii ki-tob ' [Ps. cxxxvi.

Rhythm. 1] maybe recited 'empty and full'
in the modulation of ' le'oseh nifla-
'ot gedolot lebaddo ' " (verse 4), meaning that an
"empty " line of the poem maybe modulated in the
same way as a " full " line, the rhythm consequently
not being dependent on a mechanical correspondence
of the number of syllables. It is true that Josephus
says that Moses composed the song in Ex. xv. 2
et seq. kv e^afitrpu r(5vw("Ant." ii. 16, § 4), but he
probably found mere superficial resemblances to
hexameters in the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. The
same holds good of the statements of Jerome and
other Christian writers (Kcinig, I.e. pp. 341 ct nfq.).

Division of the Poetical Portions of the Old Testa-
ment According to Their Contents : («) First may Ik;
mentioned poems that deal principally with events,
being epic-lyric in character: the triumphal song
of Israel delivered from Egypt, or the Sea song
(Ex. XV. 1-18); the mocking song on the burning
of Heshbon (Num. xxi. 27-30) ; the so-called Swan

song of Moses (Deut. xxxii. 1-43); the song of Deb-
orah (Judges v.); the derisive song of victory of
the Israelitish women (" Saul hath slain," etc. ; I Sam.
xviii. 7); Hannah's song of praise {ib. ii. 1-10);
David's song of praise on being saved from his ene-
mies (II Sam. xxii.); Hezekiah's song of praise on
his recovery (Isa. xxxviil. 9-20); Jonah's song of
praise (Jonah ii. 3-10); and many of the Psalms,
e.g., those on the creation of the world (viii., civ.),
and on the election of Israel (xcix., c, cv.). A sub-
division is formed by poems that deal more with de-
scription and praise: the so-called Well song (Num.
xxi. 17 et seq.); the song of praise on the uniqueness
of the God of Israel (Ps. xcv., xcvii.); and those
on His eternity {ib. xc); His omnipresence and
omniscience {ib. cxxxix.); and His omnipotence
{ib. cxv.).

{b) Poems appealing more to reason, being essen-
tially didactic in character. These include: fables,
like that of Jotham (Judges ix. 7-15, although in
prose); parables, like those of Nathan and others (II
Sam. xii. 1-4, xiv. 4-9; I Kings xx. 39 et seq., all
three in prose), or in the form of a song (Isa. v.
1-6); riddles (Judges xiv. \'^etscq.; Prov. xxx. 11
et seq.); maxims, as, for instance, in I Sam. xv. 23,
xxiv. 14, and the greater part of Proverbs; the
monologues and dialogues in Job iii. 3 et seq. ; com-
pare also the reflections in monologue

Didactic in Ecclesiastes. A number of the

Poems. Psalms also are didactic in character.
A series of them impresses the fact
that Ynwii's law teaches one to abhor sin (Ps. v.,
Iviii.), and inculcates a true love for the Temple and
the feastsof Yhwh (Ps. xv., Ixxxi., xcii.). Another
series of Psalms shows that God is just, although it
may at times seem different to a short-sighted ob-
server of the world and of history (" theodicies":
Ps. xlix., Ixxiii. ; comp. ib. xvi., Ivi., Ix.).

(r) Poems that portray feelings based on individ-
ual experience. Manj' of these lyrics express joy,
as, e.g., Lamech's so-called song of the Sword (Gen.
iv. 23 et seq.); David's "last words" (II Sam. xxiii.
1-7) ; the words of praise of liberated Israel (Isa.
xii. 1-6); songs of praise like Ps. xviii., xxiv.,
cxxvi., etc. Other lyrics express mourning. First
among these are the dirges proper for the dead, as
the kinah on the death of Saul and

Lyrics. Jonathan (II Sam. i. 19-27); that on
Abner's death {ib. iii. 33 et seq.) ; and
all psalms of mourning, as, e.g., the expressions of
sorrow of sufferers (Ps. xvi., xxii., xxvii., xxxix.),
and the expressions of penitence of sinners (ii. vi.,
xxxii., xxxviii., Ii., cvi., cxxx., cxliii.).

{d) Finally, a large group of poems of the Old
Testament that urge action and are exhortatory.
These may be divided into two sections: (1) The poet
wishes something for himself, as in the so-called
"signal words " (Num. x. S'tetseq., "Arise, Ynwir,"
etc.); at the beginning of tiie Well song (ib. xxi. 17 e^
seq., "ali be'er "); in the daring request, "Sun, stand
thou still" (Josh. X. 12); in Habakkuk's prayer
(" tefillah " ; Hab. iii. 1-19) ; or in psalms of request for
help in time of war(xliv., Ix., etc.) or for liberation
from prison (cxxii., cxxxvii., etc.). (2) The poet pro-
nounces blessings upon others, endeavoring to move
God to grant these wishes. To this group belong

THE JEAVISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

the blessing of Noah (Gen. ix. 25-27), of Isaac (ib.
xxix. 28etseg.),and of Ja.coh{ib. xlix. 3-27); Jethro's
congratuhitiou of Israel (Ex. xviii. 10); the blessing
of Aaron (Num. vi. 24-26) and of Balaam (ib. xxiii.
7-10, 18-24; xxiv. 5-9, 17-24) ; Mo.ses' farewell (Dent.
xxxiii. Ictseq.); the psalms that begin with "Ashre "
= "Blesised is," elc, or contain this phrase, as Ps. i.,
xli., Ixxxiv. 5ciseq., 13, cxii., cxix., Cxxviii.

It was natural that in the drama, which is in-
tended to portray a whole series of external and in-
ternal events, several of the foregoing kinds of poems
should be combined. This combination occurs in
Canticles, which, in the present writer's opinion, is
most correctly characterized as a kind of drama.

The peculiar sublimity of the poems of the Old
Testament is due partly to the liigh development
of monotheism which finds expression therein and
partly to the beauty of the moral ideals which
they exalt. This subject has been discu.ssed in a
masterly way by J. D. Michaelis in the preface to his
Arabic grammar, 2d ed., pp. xxix. et seq., and by
Kautzsch in " Die Poesie und die Poetischen Biicher
des A. T."(1902).

The more recent comparative study of the history
of literature has brought out the interesting fact
that the poetic portions of the several literatures
date from an earlier time than the prose portions.
This fact was even recognized by the Romans, as is
shown by several sentences by Strabo and Varro
that have been collected by E. Norden in his work
** Antike Kunstprosa," 1898, p. 32. It therefore cor-
responds to the general analogy of the
Relative history of literature that the poetic
Age narrative of the battle of the Israelites
of Poetry, against the northern Cauaanites, which
is usually called the song of Deborah
(Judges V. 1 et seq.), is held by modern scholars to
be an earlier account of this historic event than the
prose narrative of the battle (found ib. iv. 14 et seq.).
Modern scholars generally agree on this point in ref-
erence to the relative antiquity of prose and poetry.
Wellhausen says expressly : " We know that songs
like Josh. x. 12 et seq., Judges v. , II Sam. i.lQet seq. ,
iii. 33 et seq., are the earliest historical monuments"
("Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels," viii. 2).

But now a new question has arisen as to the rela-
tion between prose and poetry in the Old Testament,
which calls for brief discussion in the final section
of this article.

How much of the Old Testament is to be included
under poetry? This is the most recent question re-
garding the Old Testament poetry ; and several schol-
ars are inclined to answer that the entire Hebrew
Bible is poetry. Hence the following points call for
examination : (a) Can the prophetic books be con-
sidered as poetry? Setting aside the many modern
exegetes of the Old Testament who have gone so far
as to discuss the meters and verse of the several
prophets, it may be noted here nierel}'
Extent of that Sievers says {I.e. p. 374) that
Poetry the prophecies, aside from a few ex-
in the Old ccptions to be mentioned, are eo ipso
Testament, poetic, i.e., in verse. But the fact
must be noted, which no one has so
far brought forward, namely, that every single ut-
terance of Balaam is called a sentence (" mashal " ;
X.— 7

Num. xxiii. 7, 18; xxiv. 8. 15, 20, 23). while in the
prophetic books tliis term is not applied to the
prophecies. There " masiial " is used only in the
Book of Ezekiel, and in an entirely different sense,
namely, that of figurative speecli or allegory (Ezek.
xvii. 2, xxi. 5, xxiv. 3). This fact seems to show
that in earlier times prophecies were uttered more
often in shorter sentences, while subsefiuently, in
keeping with the development of Hebrew literature,
they were uttered more in detail, and the sentence
was naturally amplified into the discourse. This
view is supiiorted by Lsa. i., the first pro|)hecy
being as follows: "Banim giddalti we-romamti,"
etc. There is here certainly such a symmetry in
the single sentences that the rhythm which lias been
designated above as the poetic rhythm must be
ascribed to them. But in the same chapter there
occur also sentences like the following: "Arzekem
shemamah 'arekem serufot-esh; admatekem le-neg-
dekem zarim okelim otah " (verse 7), or this, " When
ye come to appear before me, who hath reijuired
this at your hand, to tread my courts?" (verse 12).
In the last pair of lines even the translation suffi-
ciently shows that each line does not contain three
stresses merely, as does each line of the words of
God (verses 2b, 3a, b). Hence the present writer
concludes as follows: Although the prophets of
Israel inserted poems in their prophecies (lsa. v. 1
et seq.), or adopted occasionally the rhythm of the
dirge, which was well known to their readers (Amos
v. 2 et seq. ; see above), their utterances, aside
from the exceptions to be noted, were in the freer
rhythm of prose. This view is confirmed by a sen-
tence of Jerome that deserves attention. He says in
his preface to his translation of Isaiah : " Let no one
think that the prophets among the Hebrews were
bound by meter similar to that of the Psalms."
Finally, the present writer thinks that he has proved
in his pamphlet " Neueste Prinzipien der Alltesta-
mentlichen Kritik," 1902, pp. 31 et seq., that even
the latest attempts to find strophes in Amos i. 2 et
seq. are unsuccessful.

(b) Some scholars have endeavored to include in
poetry the historical books of the Old Testament
also. Sievers includes, besides, the prologue and
the epilogue of the Book of Job. The first line is as
follows: " There was a man in the land of Uz. whose
name was Job," the Hebrew text of which has, ac-
cording to Sievers, six stresses; the next line, which
may be translated "and that man was perfect and
upright, and one that feared God and eschewed evil."
contains, according to the same writer, eight stresses.
The next line has also six stresses, but then follow
lines with 4 -f 3, 3 + 3, 3, 4, 6, 4 + 3. 4 -f 3 stresses.
However, the form of these lines is not such as to
justify one in removing the barrier that exists by
virtue of the differences in the very contents of the
prologue, the epilogue, and the dialogues of the
book, between i. 1 et seq., xlii. 7 et seq. , and iii. 3-xlii. 6.
This view is furthermore confirmed by the remark-
able cireum.stance, alluded to above, that not the
entire Book of Job, but only the section iii. 3-xlii.
6, has the special accentuation tliat was given to the
entire Book of Psalms and the Proverbs. Further-
more, Jerome, who knew something of Jewish tra-
dition, says explicitly that the Book of Job is writ-

Poetry

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

ten in prose from the beginning to iii. 2, and that
prose is again employed in xlii. 7-17.

Sievers, finally, has made the attempt (I.e. pp. 382
et seq.) to show that other narrative portions of the
Old Testament are in poetry. The lirst object of
his experiments is the section Gen. ii. 4b et seq., "In
the day that the Lord God made the earth and the
heavens," etc. He thinks that the
Sievers' Hebrew text has lines of four stresses
Views. each ; but, in order to prove this state-
ment, even at the beginning of verse
4b, he is forced to regard the expression "be-yom"
as an extra syllable pretixed to " 'asot." He is also
obliged to strike out the word " ba-arez " at the end of
verse 5a, although it has just as much meaning as has
the word " 'al lia-arez " at the end of verse 5c. Then
he must delete the words " but there went up a mist
from the earth, and watered the whole face of the
ground " (verse 6), which contains not four, but six
stresses. He adds in explanation : " They do not fit
into the context, as has long since been recognized."
This refers to the view (Holzinger, in "K. H. C."
1898, ad loc.) that "ed" in Gen. ii. 6 can not mean
"mist," because this "ed" is said to "water," while
mist merely dampens the ground. But the meta-
phorical expression "to water" is used instead of
" to dampen " just as " ed " is used in Job xxxvi. 27,
and there are no grounds for the assertion that the
statement made in verse 6 does "not fit into the
context." On the contrary, verses 5a and 6 corre-
spond in the same way as do 5b and 7. Sieveis
attempts similarly to construct other lines of four
stresses each in Gen. ii. 4b et seq. ; but perhaps
enough has been said to show that his experiments
do not seem natural, and can not extend the
boundaries of poetry be3'ond those recognized here-
tofore.

Bibliography : For the bibliography of the earlier works deal-
ing with the various questions in connection with Old Testa-
ment poetry, Ed. K6nig, Stilistik, Elietorik, Poetik, 1900, pp.
305 et seq.: E. Sievers, Metrische Untertnichinnjen : I. Stu-
dien zur HehjUifchen Metrik, 1901 ; Nlvard Schloegl, Eccie-
Kia.<<ticti.f (rrrix. 12-xliT. IG) Ope Ai'tis MetricfeinFormam
Oriuinalem Redactu.^, 1901 ; Canticum Canticnriim Hehra-
ice, 1902; Hubert Grimme, Psalmenprnbleme, 1902. pp, 1-19.

E. G. H. E. K.

Didactic : The oldest form of didactic poetry

is mnemonic verse, which was often used in post-
Biblical Hebrew even after the didactic poem was
fully developed. Among the oldest examples of
didactic poetry are mnemonic strophes on calendric
topics and Ma.soretic rules. Soon, however, the
circle widens and all poetry is absorbed in the
didactic poem. In a general view there are first to
be considered calendric calculation and everything,
connected with it.

On conjunction and the leap-year there are works
— sometimes mnemonic strophes, sometimes longer

poems — by the following authors:

Calendric Jose al-Naharwani (" Kerem Heined,"

Verses. ix. 41-42; comp. Harkavy, "Studien

und Mitteilungen," v. 116), Saadia
Gaon (see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." cols. 2170
etseq.; Berliner, in supplenient to "Mafteah," p.
15), Simson of Sens and Elijah b. Nathan (Stein-
schneider, "Cat. Berlin," .section ii., p. 73), Abraham
ibn Ezra (Kobak's "Jeschurun," iv. 222), Profiat
Diiran ("Mu'aseh Efod," notes, p. 44), Moses b.

Shem-Tob b. Jeshuah, David Vital (Steinschneider,
"Jewish Literature," p. 244), and Eliab b. Matti-
thiah (Ben Jacob, "Ozar ha-Sefarim," p. 578, No.
567). Two anonymous authors (Steinschneider,
"Cat. Berlin," section ii., p. 72; Profiat Duran, I.e.
notes, p. 45) wrote about the quarter-day; and Elia-
kim ha-Levi wrote verses on the determination of
the feast-days (Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin," section
ii., p. 73).

Philology and the sciences related to it occupy a
large space in the history of didactic poetry. Gram-
mar was treated by Solomon ibn Gabirol in a didactic
poem of 400 metrical lines, but only a part of it,
ninety-eight lines, has been preserved (the latest,
critical edition is that of Egers in the "Zunz Jubel-
schrift"). Ibn Gabirol was followed by many
others, as Elijah Levita ("Pirke Eliyahu," first
printed in 1520), Moses Provencal ("Be-Shem Kail-
mon," Venice, 1597), A. M. Greiding ("Shinih Ha-
dasliah," first ed., Zolkiev, 1764), Abraham Gemilla
Atorgo (date uncertain; see Steinschneider, "Cat.

Munich," Nos. 241-242). The col-
Grammar : lection of words with the " left sin "
Mne- (" sin semolit "), which perhaps Joseph
monic b. Solomon was the first to make,
Verses. was worked over by Hayyim Caleb

(Bcnjacob, I.e. p. 578, No. 569), by
Aaron Hamon (in Isaac Tshelebi's "Semol Yisrael,"
Constantinople, 1723), and by Moses Pisa ("Sliirah
Hadashah " and " Hamza'ah Hadashah," first printed
in "Shir Emunim," Amsterdam, 1793). The enig-
matic poem of Abraham ibn Ezra on the letters-
' A ,n ,N is well known; around it has collected a
whole literature of commentaries in rime and in
prose. A didactic poem on prosody by an anony-
mous writer has been published by Goldbium ("]\Ii-
Ginze Yisrael," i. 51). Of Masoretic didactic poems,
the well-known one on the number of letters of the
alphabet in the Biblical books is by some attributed
to Saadia Gaon ; by others, to Saadia b. Joseph
Bekor Shor (see Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col.
2225). A didactic poem on the accents was written
by Jacob b. Meir Tarn (Kobak's "Jeschurun," vol.
v.), and, later, one by Joseph b. Kalonymus. who
devoted a special poem to the accents in the books
n D Nt i.e.. Psalms, Proverbs, Job (see "Ta'ame
Emet," ed. Berliner, Berlin, 1886).

The halakic sciences, religious law, and Talmudic
jurisprudence have employed the poets even more
than has the linguistic sciences. Ilai Gaon treated
in metrical verse of property and oaths according
to Talmudic law ("Sha'are Dine Mainonot we-
Sha'are Shebu'ot," ed. Halberstam, in Kobak's
"Ginze Nistarot," iii. 30 et seq.). An anonymous
writer produced the whole of Hoshen Mislipat in
verse ("'En Mishpat," 1620); Mordecai b. Hillel
("Hilkot Shehitah u-Bedikah," commentated by

Jolianan Treves, Venice, c. 1545-52),
Halakic Israel Najara ("Shol.iate ha-Yeladin,"
Poems. Constantinople, 1718), David Vital

(supplement to " Seder Berakah," Am-
sterdam, 1687), and many others versified the regu-
lations concerning shehitah and bedikah ; an anony-
mous writer (perhaps Mordecai b. Hillel) versified
the whole complex system of dietary regulations
(Benjacob, I.e. p. 45, No. 877); another anonymous

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry

author worked over the treatise Hullin (Moses Ha-
bib, "Darke No'am," Venice, 154G; Steiiisehneider,
"Cat. Bodl." col. 3538. a.v. "Shem-Tob ibn Fala-
quera"); and Isaac b. Abraham Hayyot, the whole
"Yoreh De'ah " ("Penc Yizhak," Cracow, 1591).
Saul b. David elaborated the thirty-nine principal
kinds of work forbidden on the Sabbath ("Tal
Orot," Prague, 1615); Elijah b. Moses Loanz, the
Sabbath regulations in general (in "Zeniirot u-Tush-
bahot," Basel, 1599); and Abraham Samuel, the
whole Mishnah treatise on the Sabbatli ("Shirat
Dodi," Venice, 1719). The Shulhan 'Aruk in its
entirety found a reviser in Isaac b. Noah ha-Kohen
("Sefer ha Zikkaron," n.d., n.p.).

Here belong also a large portion of the halakic
piyyutim (see Dukes, "Zur Kennlniss der Neuhe-
brilischen KeligiOsen Poesie," pp. 42 et seq.) and the
general and special Azharot. In this connection,
too, should be mentioned the didactic poems on the
Mishnah treatises of the Talmud. Of these, per-
haps the first was composed by Sa'id al-Damrari
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin," section ii., p. 8); the
same material was treated of by Isaac Samora;
while Saadia b. Danan in his didactic poem on this
subject brings in the separate sections of the trea-
tises (in Gavison, "'Omer ha-Shikhah," pp. 123 et
seq. ).

The philosophical didactic poem is also very well
represented. Levi b. Abraham b. Hayyim wrote
1,84() lines ("Batte ha-Nefesh weha-Lehashim " ; see
Benjacob, I.e. p. 90, No. 693) on the "seven kinds
of wisdom" ("sheba' hakamot"); Solomon b. Im-
manuel da Piera translated Musa b. Tubi's philo-
sophical didactic poem in metrical
Philosophic verse ("Batte ha-Nefesh," ed. Hirsch-
Poems. feld, Ramsgate, 1894); Abraham b.
Meshullam of Modeua wrote in rime
a commentary on philosophy (see Michael, "Or
ha-Hayyim," No. 187; "Bi'ur le-Hokmat ha-Pilo-
sofia ba-Haruzim "); Anatoli (Seraiah ha-Levi)
wrote on the ten categories; another poem on the
same subject is printed in "Kobez 'al Yad " (ii.,
"Haggahot," p. 10); Shabbethai b. Malkiel in-
cluded the four forms of syllogism in four lines
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Leyden," p. 218); and the
"thirteen articles of faith" exist in countless
adaptations. Mattithiah Kartin versified the "Mo-
reh Nebukim" (Steinschneider, " Ilebr. Uebers." p.
428); Mordecai LOwenstamm, the "Behinat 'Olam"
("Shire ha-Behinah," Breslau, 1832). The Cabala,
too, received attention, as witness the adaptations
of the ten Sefirot. Of other sciences only medicine
need be mentioned. A didactic poem on the con-
trolling power of the twelve months is attributed
to Maimonides (Steinschneider, "Cat. Berlin." sec-
tion i., p. 39); Solomon ibn Ayyub translated Avi-
cenna's didactic poem on medicine in metrical verse
(Steinschneider, " Hebr. Uebers." p. 700); Al-Harizi
was the author of a metrical dietetic
Poems on thesis ("Refu'ot ha-Gewiyah," first in
History "Likkute ha-Pardes," Venice, 1519).
and Dietetic-ethical mnemonic verses by

Medicine. Shem-Tob ibn Falaqucra likewise
are well known ("Iggeret Hanhagat
ha-Guf weha-Nefesh " ; see Steinschneider, "Cat.
Munich," No. 49).

History also was frequently the subject of didac-
tic poems. Tlie historical piyyiiUm should hardly
be mentioned here; at un early date, however,
a certain Saadia, about wliotn notiiing dctlnitc is
known, compost-d a learned history in rime (Zunz,
" Z. G. " p. 71) ; Falaquera was tiie author of a " Megil-
lat haZikkaron," of whicii only the title is known;
to Simon b. Zemah Duran is attributed the author-
ship of a didactic poem on tlie chain of tradition
(Steinschneider, "Cat. Bodl." col. 2602); and M<.s<-8
Rieti's masteri)iece "Mikdash Me'at"may also be
mentioned, although it is not strictly a didactic
poem. Poets wrote about games also, especially on
chess, e.g., Abraham ibn Ezra (.see Steinschneider,
"Schach bei den .Juden," Berlin. 1878); and there
have not been wanting those who vfrsified all the
books of the Bible. This was not done. Iiowever,
for didactic purposes; and such prodiictions do not
belong to the class of poetry of whicli this article
treats.

See, also, Fable; Polemics; Provehbs.

J. H B.
Lyric: Lyric poetry being essentially tlie ex-
pression of individual emotion, it is natural that in
Hebrew literature it should be, in the main, ilevo-
tional in character. Post-Biblical lyrics are confined
within a small scale of human feeling. Love for God
and devotion to Zion are the predominant notes. The
medieval Hebrew poet sang less frequently of wine,
woman, and the pleasures of life, not because the
Hebrew language does not lend itself to these topics,
but because such ideas were for many centuries in-
congruous with .lewish life. Yet there is no form
of lyric poetry which has been neglected by -the
Hebrew poet. Ode and sonnet, elegy and song are
fairly represented, and there is even an adequate
number of wine-songs.

Secular poetry in Hebrew literature may be said
to date from the middle of the tenth century. In
the time of Samuel ha-Nagid (d. 105.')) it had already
attained a degree of perfection. Still it is ditlicult
to find, in that early period, lyric poetry which is
not devotional, or non-devotional poetry which is
not didactic or gnomic in character. Perhaps the
earliest secular lyric poem is the wlne-
In Spain, song ascribed to Solomon ibn Gabirol
(1021-70). said to have been written
against a niggardly host who placed water instead
of wine before his guests. The first great [>oet to
give prominence to non-devotional lyric poetry was
Moses ibn Ezra (1070-1139). who devoted srvt-rak
chapters of his "Tarshish " to the praiseof wine and
music, friendship anil love. The secular lyrics of
his more famous contemjiorary Judah ha-Ix-vi
(1086-1142) are mostly occasional poems, such aa
wedding-songs, panegyrics, and the like. Abnihan*
ibn Ezra (1092-1167) wrote a number of beautiful
poems of a personal character, but they belong to the
epigrammatic rather than to the lyric class ot litera-
ture. Judah al-Hari/i ( 11 6r>- 12:^0), though the first
poet of note to devote himself entirely to secular
poetry, is more of a sjitirist than a lyrist. Of the
fifty chapters of which his "Tahkemoni" consists
the twenty-seventh is the only one which sings the
praise of "wine. The rest are satires, didactic or
gnomic in character.

Poetry
Folak

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

100

The true ring of non-devotional l\Tic poetry,
however, is not to be found in Hebrew literature
until the time of Immanuel of Home (1265-1330).
He united in himself the warm imagination of the
Orient and the erotic spirit of Italy.
Immanuel In a style more Uexible even than that
of Rome, of Harizi he gives utterance to pas-
sionate love with such freedom of
expression that the Rabbis thought it justifiable
to forbid the reading of his "Mahberot" on the
Sabbath.

From Immanuel there is a stretch of almost three
centuries before another great lyric poet is met with.
Israel b. Moses N.\jara is imiversally acknowledged
to be one of the sweetest singers in Israel. He is,
however, more of a devotional poet, and his right to
be included here comes from the fact that he sings
of God and Israel in terms of love and passion. In
fact, he is so anthropomorphic in his expressions
that Menahem di Lonzano condemned him for it.
Nevertheless the latter, though of a serious turn of
mind, indulged in lighter compositions when the
occasion presented itself. His poem for Purim
(" 'Abodat Mikdash," folio 74, Constantinople) is
one of the best wine-songs in Hebrew literature.

From Najara two centuries pass before true lyric
poetry is again met with. This is a period of transi-
tion in Hebrew poetrj*. The Hebrew bard had just
begun to come under the influence of European lit-
erature, and as yet had had no time to assimilate
what he had absorbed and strike out in a way of his
own. The drama is introduced into Hebrew litera-
ture in the works of Solomon Usque, Joseph Penso,
and Moses Zacuto. Yet, though the form in which
these poets threw their compositions is dramatic,
the temperament is lyric in all of them. For the
same reason Moses Hayyim Luzzatto must be re-
garded as one of the best lyric poets of the eighteenth
century.

The success which Wessely's "Songs of Glory"
("Shire Tif'eret") met gave rise to a great number
of imitators, and almost every one
Wessely . who could write verse essayed the epic.
But soon this German school was over-
shadowed by the Russian lyric school, of which
Abraham Dob Bar Lebensolm and his son Micah
were the acknowledged leaders. From that day
until now the palm has been held by the Russian
poets. With the exception of Joseph Almanzi and
Samuel David Luzzatto of Italy, and Meir Letteris
and Naphtali Herz Imber of Galicia, all the more
eminent modern Hebrew poets belong to Russia.

Judah Lob Gordon, though decidedly a greater
master of Hebrew than his preceptor Micah Leben-
sohn, can not be assigned to an exalted position as a
lyric poet. As a satirist he is supreme; as a lyrist
he is not much above the older and is far below the
younger Lebensolm. The most fiery of all modern
lyrists is undoubtedly Aba K. Schapira. Z. H.
Mane is sweeter, M. M. Dolitzky is more melodious,
D. Frischman is more brilliant, and N. H. Imber
sounds more elemental ; but Schapira has that power
which, in the language of Heine, makes his poetry
"a fiery pyramid of song, leading Israel's caravan
of affliction in the wilderness of exile." Of living
poets the nearest to approach him is 11. N. Bialik

and A. Libushitzky, though neither has yet arrived
at maturity. See Dr.\ma, Hebrew; Epic Poetry;
PiYYVT; Satire.

Bibliography : Pelltzsch, Zur Geach. dcr Jlldischen Poesie ;
Stelnschnelder, Jcwisli Literature.
J. I. D.

POGGETTI, JACOB (JOSEPH) B. MOR-
DECAI (^called also Pavieti) : Italian Talmudist
and writer on religious ethics; born at Asti, Pied-
mont; flourished in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. His only known work is " Kizzur Reshit
Hokmah " (Venice, 1600; Cracow, 1667; Amster-
dam, 1725; Zolkiev, 1806), an abridgment of the
" Reshit Hokmah " of Elijah de Vidas. It is in-
tended to teach an ascetic and ethical life.

Bibliography: Furst, Ditil. Jud. li. 32-23; Benjacob, Ozar
ha-Scfarim. p. 542, No. 42.
D. S. O.

POGORELSKY, MESSOLA : Russian physi-
cian and writer; born at Bobruisk March 7, 1862;
educated at the gj-mnasium of his native town ; stud-
ied medicine at the Universitj- of St. Vladimir in
Kiev, where he was graduated in 1890. In the same
3'ear he was appointed government rabbi at Kher-
son, a position which he held until 1893. Pogorel-
sky is a prolific writer on medical and on Jewish
subjects. Among his treatises of interest to Jewish
readers are: "Circumcisio Ritualis Hebra;orum"
(written in German and published at St. Petersburg,
1888); "Yevreiskiya Imena, Sobstvennyya," on
Jewish names in Bible and Talmud, published in
the "Voskhod" and in book-form {ib. 1893); "O
Sifilisye po Biblii " (Zara'ath), on syphilis according
to the Bible {ib. 19()0); "Ob Okkultismye," occult
science according to Bible and Talmud (ib. 1900).

His medical essays have appeared in " St. Peters-
burger Medicinische Wochenschrift," " Russkaya
Meditzina," and other Russian periodicals.

H. r. J. L. La.

POGROMT. See Russia.

POIMANNIKI. See Russia.

POITIERS : French city ; capital of the depart-
ment of Vienne. In 1236 the Jews of Poitiers and
the adjacent country were harried by the Crusaders,
although Pope Gregory IX., in a letter to the bishop,
strongly condemned their excesses. Four years
later (1240) Nathan ben Joseph engaged in a debate
with the Bishop of Poitiers. Alphonse de Poitiers,
yielding to the demands of the Christian inhabit-
ants, ordered the expulsion of the Jews from the
city (1249) and the cancelation of all debts due them
from the Christians. He was not disdainful of their
knowledge of medicine, however; for when he was
attacked, in 1252, with a serious affection of the
eyes he called in a celebrated Jewish physician of
Aragon, named Ibrahim. In 1269 he compelled all
Jews remaining in his dominions to wear the badge
of the wheel on tlieir garments. In 1273 the coun-
cil of Poitiers forbade landed proprietors to make
any contracts with the Jewish usurers, and ordered
Christians generally not to lend money to the Jews
or to borrow from them, except in cases of extreme
necessity. In 1296 all Jews were expelled from the
city by Philip the Fair.

101

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poetry
Poiak

Bibliography: Boutarlc. St.-Louis et Alptwnite de PnUicr»,
p. 87 ; Depplng, Les Juif» dniis le Mmien Ave, pp. 128-130 ;
Gross, Gallia Judaicn, p. ti3; Salffe, Lex Juifx (In Lnnoxie-
doc, pp. 22. 26 ; Ibn Verga, Shebet Ychudah, p. 114 ; R. E. J.
i. 230, Hi. 216, vi. 83.
G. S. K.

POITOU : Ancient province of France. Several
Jewish communities wore founded there in the
twelfth century, notably those of Niort, Bressuiie,
and Thenars (department of Deux-Sc^vres), Chatel-
lerault (Vienne), and Mortagne and Tyfauges(La
Vendee). About the year 1166 the scholars of the
province took part in the synod convened at Troyes
under the auspices of R. Tarn and KaSIIBaM. In
1236 Pope Gregorj- IX. interfered in behalf of the
Jews of Poitou, then persecuted by the Crusaders.
Alphonse de Poitiers displayed great severity in all
his dealings with the Jews. In 1249 he expelled
them from Poitiers, Niort, St. - Jean - d'Angely,
Saintes, St.-Maixent, and Rochelle, and five years
later lie released the Christians from all interest due
to Jews. In 1267 Jews were forbidden to take part
in public functions or to build new synagogues. A
poll-tax was imposed on them in 1268, and they were
obliged, under pain of imprisonment, to declare the
exact value of their possessions, whether personal
property or real estate. Alphonse exacted with the
utmost rigor the payment of the taxes he imposed
on them, and disregarded the measures taken in their
behalf by the Bishop of Toulouse. In 1269 he com-
pelled them to wear the badge; but in 1270 he ex-
empted the Jew Mosset of St.-Jean-d'Angely and
his two sons, on the payment of a sum of money,
from the obligation of wearing this badge before
All Saints' day. In the same year he appointed the
Dominican prior of Poitiers and a secular priest
chosen by the royal councilors to conduct an inves-
tigation of usury in the jurisdiction of Poitiers. He
ordered that every Christian should be believed upon
oath in regard to any sum less than six sols; the in-
quisitors were to pronounce upon cases not involving
more than one hundred sols, while cases involving
greater amounts were to be referred to the decision
of the sovereign. In 1296 the Jews were expelled
from Poitou, Philip the Fair exacting in return from
the Christians, who benefited by the expulsion, a
"fuage" (hearth-tax) of 3,300 pounds. In 1307 a
question was raised regarding the rent of a house
and lands situated at Chatillon-sur-Indre, which had
formerly belonged to the Jew Croissant Castellon,
called the "Poitovin," the son of Bonfil de Saint-
Savin.

The Jews of Poitou were persecuted in 1320 by
the Pastoureaux, and in 1321 were accused of having
poisoned the springs and wells. Only one scholar
of Poitou is known— R. Isaac, mentioned as a com-
mentator on the Bible (Zunz, "Z. G." p. 89).

Bibliography: Depping, LesJuifn dans le Mnyen Aae, PP-
88, 12^t ; Dom Valssete, Histnire Geiu-rale de Lauquednc, ill.
510, 513; (iiiillauine de Nanpis, Confun/aho, p. 78; Malvezin.
HM. des Jiiifs de. Bordeaux, pp. 4.5-46; R. K. J. il. 44 : ill.
216; vi. 8;?; ix. 138; xv. 237, 244 ; Saisre, Lcs Juifgdu Langxu-
dnc, pp. 20, 26 ; Gross. Gallia Judaica., pp. 451 et seq.
G. S. K.

POLA. See Istri.\.

POLACCO, VITTORIO: Italian jurist of Po-
lish descent; born at Padua May 10, 1859. Since
1884 he has been professor of civil law at the Univer-

sity of Padua. His cliicf works are: " Delia Divl-
sione Operata da Ascendenti Fra Di.sccndentj." Pad-
ua, 1884; "Delia Dazione in Paguininto,"- vol. i.,
ih. 18HH; "Contro il- Divorzio." ib. 1892; " L»i Ques-
tione del Divorzio c gli Israeliti in Ituliu," ih. 1894;
"Le Ohbligazioni nel DiritU) Civile Italiuno," ib.
1898. He has also contriliuted numerous articles on
legal topics to the "Archivio Giuridico," the "Atli
della R. Accademia di Scienzc, Lettere ed Arti" of
Padua, the " Atti del R. Istituto Veneto." and other
publications.

fe. H. II. K.

POLAK, GABRIEL JACOB : Talinudist and
bil)li()grai)iicr; born .June:!, IHo:^; died May 14, 1869.
at Amsterdam, where he was i)rincipal of a .scliool.
He was the author of the following works, all pub-
lished in Amsterdam : " Bikkure ha Sinuiiili " (1H44).
a Dutch and Hebrew almanac for t lie year .')604 ; " I)i-
bre Kodesh " (1845), a Dutch-Hebrew dictionary;
"Ilalikot Kedem" (1847). a collection of Hebrew
poems; "Ben Gorni" (1851), a collection of essiiyg;
"Sha'ar Ta'ame Sifre Emet" (1858), an introduction
to a treatise on the accents in the books of Job and
the Psalms; a valuable edition of Ik'dersi's work
on Hebrew synonyms, "Hotem Toknit" (1865); a
biography of the poet David Franco Mcndes and his
contemporaries, in "Ha-Maggid," xii. , and " .Meir
'Enayim," a descriptive catalogue of the libniries of
Jacobsohn and Melr Rubens, a work of great bib-
liographical value.

Polak's editions of the rituals are noted for their
accuracy.

Bibliography : Furst. Bihl. Jud. lil. 109; Roest, Cat. Roten-
thai. Dibl. pp. 940-943; Zeitlln, Kiryat Sefer, Jl. rr.i.
s. M. L. B.

POLAK, HENRI: Dutch labor-leader and poli-
tician; born at Amsterdam Feb. 22, 1868. Till his
thirteenth year he attended the school conducted by
Halberstadt, a well-known teacher of Jewish mid-
dle-class boys, and afterward learned from his uncle
the trade of'diamondcutting. In is87 and lHS8and
again in 1889 and 1890 he lived in London, wlicre
he became interested in socialism. Returning to
Holland, he became attached to the Socimil Demo-
cratische Bond, which he left in 1893 on accr>unt of
its anarchistic principles. With Troelstra and Van
der Goes he founded the periodical " De Nieuwe
Tijd." In 1894 he became one of the twelve found-
ers of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiders Partij
(S. D. A. P.); in 1898 he became a member of its
committee; and since 1900 he has been its cliairman.

On Nov. 7, 1894, on the occasion of a strike in
the Dutch navy-yards, a confederation was formed
of different parties, with a central committee of
which Polak was chosen chairman. In Jan.. 1^'95.
he was appointed chairman of the Algemeene Neder-
landsche Diamantbewerkers Bond (A. N. D. B.).
which union had its origin in that strike. Since
then he has been editor-in-chief of the " Weckblad."
Polak gave up his trade of diamond-cuttinpand de-
voted himself to the organization of the A. N. D. B..
which is considered the greatest and best-organi.'.ed
union in the Netherlands. Besides many minor
strikes Polak has directed seven important ones, and
has succeeded in obtaining: (1) the abolition of the

Polak
Polemics

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

102

truck system ; (2) an advance of the rate of wages
from 50 to 200 per cent: ami (3) tlie shortening of
the working-day from twelve to nine hours. The
A. N. D. B. strives to raise the moral and intellectual
status of its members hy arranging lecture courses
and by maintaining a library. It includes nine sec-
tions of the diamond industry, with a membership of
7,rj00— 4,500 Jews and 3.000"ciiristians. It is with-
out any political tendency ; and since 1900 it has had
a building of its own, and its own printing-office
with twenty-five employees.

Polak is a member of tiie committee for statistics
(since 1900), chairman of the Kamer van Arbeid
(since 1900), member of the municipality (since
1902), and chairman of the Alliance Uuiverselle des
Ouvriers Diamautaires (since 1903). He has a great
predilection for history. Besides some brochures
for socialistic projjaganda Polak has translated S.
and B. Webb's "History of Trade Union" ("Ge-
schiedenis van het Britsche Vereenigingsleven,"
Amsterdam, 1900) and "Theorie en Praktijk van het
Britsche Vereenigingsleven," ih. 1902. He is corre-
spondent of the '• clarion," " Neue Zeit," "Mouve-
nient Socialiste," and other papers.

8. E. Sl.

POLAK, HERMAN JOSEF : Dutch philolo-
gist; born Sept. 1, lb>44, at Leaden; educated at the
university of that city (Ph.D. 1869). From 1866 to
1869 he tiiught classics at the gymnasium of Leyden ;
from 1873 he taught history at that of Rotterdam;
and from 1882 he was conrector and teacher of clas-
sics there. In 1894 lie was appointed professor of
Greek at GrOningen University.

Polak is a member of the Roj^al Academy of
Sciences and of the Maatscliappij voor Letterkunde
of Leyden. Besides his doctor's dissertation " Ob-
servationes ad Scholia in Homeri Odysseam " (1869),
Polak has pul)lished the following works: " Bloem-
lezing van Grieksche Dichters" (1875; 2d ed. 1892);
"Ad Ody.sseam Ejusque Scholiastas Curai Se-
cundfc" (Briel, 1881-82); and "Studit'n" (1888).
He has also contributed a great number of essays
to "Mnemosyne," "Hermes," "Museum," "Tyd-
spiegel," "Gids," "Elsevier," and other journals.

Bibliography: Jaarhnek Grnuingsrhe Universiteit ,'lS9^-Qr,•,
Ottze Hoogleernaren, p. 110 ; En Halve Ecuw, il. 27, 270, 375.

8. E. Sl.

POLAK, JAKOB EDXJARD : Austrian physi-
cian ; horn 1818 at Gross-Morzin, Bohemia; died
Oct. 7, 1891; studied at Prague and Vienna (M.D.).
About 1851, when an envoy of the Persian govern-
ment went to Vienna to engage teacliers for the mil-
itary scliool at Teheran, then about to be organized,
Polak presented himself as a candidate. He arrived
in the Persian capital in 1851, much impaired in
health by tlie long voyage; and, pending tlie organ-
ization of the school, studied the language of the
country.

In spite of the many obstacles which he encoun-
tered— particularly the defective state of medical
science, which was not then taught in class, and the
Islamic prohibition against the dissection of bodies
— Polak soon achieved a reputation in Persia, and
enjoyed the especial confidence of Shah Nasir-ed-
Din. At first he lectured in Frencli, with the aid of

an interpreter; but after a year he was able to
lecture in Persian, and later published in Persians
work on anatomy. He compiled also a medical
dictionary in Persian, Arabic, and Latin, in order
to provide a system of terminology. Finally he
founded a state surgical clinic containing sixty beds.
A serious illness in 1855 obliged him to give up his
professional work; but he continued his literary
activity.

As physician to the shah, Polak occupied a high
position. About 1861 he returned to Vienna, and
wlienever the shah visited Austria Polak greeted
him at the frontier. His "Persien, das Land und
Seine Bewohner; P^thnograpische Schilderungen,"
appeared at Leipsic in 1865.

Bibliography : Drasche, in Neue Freie Presae, Oct. 14, 1891.
8. E. J.

POLAND. See Rrssi.v.

POLEMICS AND POLEMICAL LITERA-
TURE : Altliough pagan nations as a rule were not
prone to intolerance in matters of religion, they
were so with regard to Judaism. Thej' were highly
incensed against the people which treated so con-
temptuously all pagan divinities and reviled all that
was sacred in pagan eyes. Especially embittered
against the Jews were tlie Egyptians when, through
the translation of the Bible, tliey were informed of
the pitiful role ascribed to their ancestors at the
birth of the Jewish nation. In Egypt, therefore,
originated the anti-Jewish writings, and the apolo-
getic and polemical works in defense
First Ap- of Judaism against paganism. As
pearance in early as the middle of the third pre-
Egypt. Christian century a Theban priest
named Manetho, in his history of the
Egyptian dynasties, written in Greek, violently at-
tacked the Jews, inventing all kinds of fables con-
cerning their sojourn in Egypt and their exodus
therefrom. The substance of his fables is that a
number of persons suffering from le]irosy had been
expelled from the country by the Egyptian king
Amenophis (or Bocchoris, as he is sometimes called),
and sent to the quarries or into tlie wilderness. It
happened that among them was a priest of Heliopo-
lis of the name of Os'arsiph (Moses). This priest
persuaded his companions to abandon the worship
of the gods of Egypt and adopt a new religion
which he had elaborated. Under h.is leadership the
lepers left Egypt, and after many vicissitudes and
the perpetration of numerous crimes the}' reached
the district of Jeru.salem, which they subdued.

These fables, togelher with those invented by
Antiochus Epiphanes in connection with his alleged
experiences in the Temple of Jerusalem, were re-
pcate<l and greatly amplified by Posidonius in his
liistory of Persia. The accusations thus brouglit
againstthe Jews were that they worshiped an ass in
their Temple, that they sacrificed annually on their
altar a specially fattened Greek, and that they were
filled with hatred toward every other nationality,
particularly the Greeks. All these malevolent fic-
tions found embodiment in the polemical treati-ses
against the Jews by Apollonius Molou, Chicrcmon,
Lysimachus, Apion, and others (see Eusebius,
" Pneparatio Evangelica," X. 19; Josephus, "Contra

103

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polak
Folemioa

Ap." ii. 7. § 15), and were taken up and retailed, with
sundry alterations and additions, by the Roman his-
torian Trogus Ponipeius, and especially by Tacitus,
who, in this respect, displayed such ingenuity as to
excite the envy of the greatest casuists among the
rabbis.

To the various incidents which, according to
Manotho, accompanied the Exodus, Tacitus traces
the 6rigiu of nearly all the religious customs of the
Jews. Abstinence from the use of swine's Hesh is
explained by the fact that the swine is peculiarly
liable to the itch and therefore to that very disease
on account of which the Jews were once so severely
maltreated. Frequent fasting is alleged by him to
have been instituted in commemoration of the star-
vation from which they had escaped in the wilder-
ness. Their observance of the seventh day of the
week is assumed to be due to their finding a resting-
place on the seventh day (Tacitus, "Hist." V. 2eiseq.).
It is not astonishing, therefore, that, thus represented,
the Jewish religion was looked upon by the major-
ity of educated people as a"barbara superstitio"
(Cicero, "Pro Flacco," xxviii.), and that the Jewish
nation was made the butt of the wit of the Roman
satirists Horace, Juvenal, and Martial.

To defend the Jewish religion and the Jewish race
against the slanderous attacks of the heathen there
appeared, at various intervals, from about the .sec-
ond pre-Christian century to the middle of the sec-
ond century c.e., apologetical and
The polemical works emphasizing the su-

Hellenists. periority of Judaism over paganism.
To works of this kind belong the ex-
planation of the Mosaic law by Aristobulus of
Paneas, the Oracula Sibyllina, the Wisdom of Solo-
mon, the apocalpyses, the Jewish-Hellenistic wri-
tings of Alexandria (see Hellenism), especially
those of Philo, and lastly Josephus' " Contra Apio-
nem." The aim of all these works was the same,
namely, severe criticism of idolatry and vigorous ar-
raignment of the demoralization of the pagan world.

A new polemical element was introduced by
Christianity — that of the interpretation of the Bib-
lical text. Having received from Judaism its ethical
principles, the new religion, in order to justify its dis-
tinctive existence, asserted that it had been founded
to fulfil the mission of Judaism, and endeavored
to prove the correctness of this allegation from
the Bible, the very book upon which Judaism is
founded. Aside from the Gospels and the Acts of
the Apostles, the first Christian polemical work
against the Jews was the account of the dialogue
between Justin Martyr and the Jew Tryphon, which
took place shortly after the Bar Kokba war against
the Romans. The Church father endeavored to
demonstrate that the prophecies concerning the Mes-
siah applied to Jesus, while the Jew met his argu-
ments with the traditional interpretation. Justin
displayed great bitterness against the Jews, whom
he charged with immorality and with having ex-
punged from their Bibles much that was favorable
to Christianity ("Dial, cum Tryph." ^i^ 72, 73, 114).
These charges were re])eated by the succeeding
Christian polcmists; while that of having falsified
the Scriptures in their own interests was later made
against both Christians and Jews by the Mohammed -

an.s. A remarkable feature In Justin's dialogue is
the politenes.s with which the disputants speak of
each oilier; at the close of the debate Jew and
Christian confess that they have learned much from
each other and part withexpresaiuusuf mutual good-
will.

More bitter in tone is the dialogue, belonging to the
same period, written by the converted Jt w Arislun
of Pella, and in which a Christian named Jason and
a Jew named Papiscusare alleged to have discuKsed
the nature of Jesus. Among other polemical works
directed against the Jew.<» tin- most noteworthy arc:
"The Canon of the Church." or " Against the Judu-
izers," by Clement of Alexandria (see EuM-bius,
"Hist. Eccl." vi. 13); "Contra Celsum." byOrigen;
ripof 'lovdaiovc, by Claudius Apol-

Church iinarius; " Adversus Juditos," by 'i'cr-
Attacks, tullian; " Adversus Juda'08"and "Tes-
timonia," by Cyprian; " Demonstrutio
Evangelica," by Eusebius; " De Incarnatione Dei
Verbi," by Athanasius of Alexandria; the "Homi-
lies" of John Chrysostom; the "Hynms" of Ephra-
em Syrus; "Adversus Haereses" and "Aucyrotus,"
by Epiphanius; " Dialogus Christiani et Juda-i de
St. Trinitate," by Jerome. The main points dis-
cussed in tliese works are the dogma of the Trin-
ity, the abrogation of the Mosaic law, and especially
the Messianic mission of Jesus, which Christians en-
deavored to demonstrate from the Old Testament.
Some of the Church Fathers emphasized their argu-
ments with curses and revilings. They reproached
the Jews for stiff-neckednessand hatred of Ch ri.stiau3 ;
they were especially bitter against them for persist-
ing in their Messianic hopes. The following pas-
sage from one of Ephraem Syrus' "hynms" against
the Jews may serve as an example of the polemical
attitude of the Church Fathers: "Jacob blessed
Judah, saying, ' The scepter shall not depart from
Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until
Shiloh come ' [Gen. xlix. 10]. In this passage the
Jews that perceive not search if tliere be a .scepter
or an interpreter between his [Judah s] feet, for the
things that are written have not been fulfilled,
neither have they so far met with accomplishment.
But if the scepter be banished and the proj)liet
silenced, let the people of the Jews be put to shame,
however hardened in impudence they be."

The Jews did not remain silent, but answered
their antagonists in the sjune tone. This at Iwust is
the asserti(m of Jerome in the preface to his com-
mentary on the Psalms, where he says that in his
time discussions between the Church and the Syna-
gogue were very frequent. He further asserts that
it was considered a great undertaking to enter into
polemics with the Jews— a proof that contests often
ended in favor of the latter. However, in spite of
the frecjuency of discussions, no particular Jewish
polemical work of that period has survived; the
only source of information concerning the nature of
these discussions is a ninnber of dialogues recorded
in the Talmud and Midrash. These dialogues, like
others between Jews and pagans found in the same
sources, were more in the nature of go<Kl-humoretI
raillery than of seiiou? debate. The rabbis who
excelled in these friendly passages of arms with
pagans. Christians, and Christian Gnostics were

FoleznicB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

104

Johanan ben Zakkai, Gamaliel II., Joshua ben Han-

aniab, and Akiba. Johanan ben Zakkai answered

several questions of an aggressive na-

Discus- ture put by a Roman commander as
sions in the to the contradictious existing between

Talmud. Num. iii. 22, 28, 3-4 and the 39th verse
of the same chapter (Bek. 5b) and
between Ex. xxxviii. 26, 27 and Gen. i. 20, ii. 19
(Hul. 27b); also as to the regulation in Ex. xxi. 29
(Yer. Sanh. 19b) and the law concerning the red
heifer (Pesik. 40a).

Interesting are the accounts of the debates which
Gamaliel, Eleazar, Joshua ben Hananiah, and Akiba
held with unbelievers at Rome (see Bacher, "Ag.
Tan." 1. 85). It is noteworthy that even in the
time of Gamaliel the Christiana used as an argu-
ment against Judaism the misfortunes that had be-
fallen Israel. In discussing with Gamaliel, a " min "
quoted Hosea v. 6 to demonstrate that God had
completely forsaken Israel (Yeb. 102b; Midr. Teh.
to Ps. x.). A similar argument was used, not in
words but in gesture, by another min against Joshua
ben Hananiah, who answered by a sign that God's
protecting hand was still stretched over Israel (Hag.
5b). This took place in the palace of Hadrian,
who questioned Joshua as to how God created
the world (Gen. R. x.); concerning the angels
(Gen. R. Ixxviii. ; Lam. R. iii. 21); as to the res-
urrection of the body (Gen. R. xxviii. ; Eccl.
R. xii. 5); and in regard to the Decalogue (Pesik.
R. 21).

But rabbinical polemics assumed a more violent
character when the Church, having acquired polit-
ical power, threw aside all reserve, and invective
and abuse became the favorite weapons of the assail-
ants of Judaism. A direct attack upon Christianity
was made by the Palestinian amora R. Sinilai. His
attacks were especially directed against the doctrine
of the Trinity (Gen. R. viii. ; Yer. Ber. ix. lid, 12a).
A later Palestinian amora, R. Abbahu, refuted all
the fundamental dogmas of Christianity (Yalk.,
Gen. 47; Gen. R. xxv. ; Shab. 152b). With re-
gard to the doctrine of the Trinity, Abbahu sajs:
" A thing of flesh and blood may have a father, a
brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sover-
eignty, but the Lord said, ' I am the Lord thy God !
I am the first ' — that is, I have no father — ' and be-
sides me there is no God '—that is, I have no son "
(see Isa. xliv. 6; Ex. R. xxix.). Commenting upon
Num. xxiii. 19, Abbahu says, "God is not a man,
that he should repent; if a man say, 'lam God,'
he lieth ; and if he say, ' I am the son of man ' [Mes-
siah], he shall repent; and if he say, ' I shall go up
to heaven ' — he may say it, but he can not perform
it " (Yer. Ta'an. i. 1).

The Church Fathers who lived after Jerome knew
less and less of Judaism, and merely repeated the
arguments that had been used by their predecessors,
supplemented by more or less slanderous attacks
borrowed from pagan anti-Jewish writings. Spain
became from the sixth century a hotl)C'd of Chris-
tian polemics against Judaism. Among the numer-
ous works written there, the oldest and the most
important was that of Isidorus Ilispalensis. In a
book entitled "Contra Judajos," the Archbishop of
Seville grouped all the Biblical passages that had

been employed by the Fathers to demonstrate the
truth of Christianity. Whether learned Spanish
Jews took up the controversy and re-
Polemics plied to Isidorus' arguments by coun-
with ter-treatisesin Latin, as GrStz believes
Christians. ("Gesch." v. 75 et seq.}, is doubtful.
In Spain, as everywhere else in that
period, the Jews paid little attention to attacks writ-
ten in Latin or Greek, which languages were not
understood by the masses. Moreover, the Christian
dogmas of the Trinity, the Incarnation, etc., seemed
to them to stand in such direct contradiction to both
the letter and the spirit of the Old Testament that
they deemed it superfluous to refute them.

The expansion of Karaism during the ninth and
tenth centuries awakened in the Jews the polemical
spirit. Alive to the dangers that threatened tradi-
tional Judaism through the new sect, which, owing
to the inertness of the Geonim of the Babylonian
academies, was rapidly growing, several rabbinical
scholars took up the study of both Biblical and sec-
ular sciences, which enabled them to advance against
the Christians as well as the Karaites a systematic
defense of Jewish beliefs. The first known polemist
of that period was David ibn Merwan al-Mukam-
mas, who devoted the eighth and tenth chapters of
his "'Ishrun al-Makalat " to the refutation of Chris-
tian dogmas. He was followed by Saadia Giion,
who, both in his commentaries on the Bible and in
the second chapter of his philosophical "Emunot
we-De'ot," assailed the arguments of the Church.
He maintained that the Jewish religious system,
which allowed man to approach as nearly as is pos-
sible to perfection, would always exist, and would
Hot be replaced by any other, least of all by the
Christian, which transmuted mere abstractions into
divine personalities.

More aggressive was Saadia's contemporary, the
Karaite Al-Kirkisani. In the third treatise of his
"Kitab al-Anwar wal-Marakib " (ch. xvi.) he says
that "the religion of the Christians, as practised at
present, has nothing in common with the teachings
of Jesus. It originated with Paul, who ascribed
divinity to Jesus and prophetic inspiration to him-
self. It was Paul that denied the necessity of obey-
ing the commandments and taught that religion
consisted in humility; and it was the Nicene Coun-
cil which adopted precepts that occur neither in the
Law nor in the Gospels nor in the Acts of Peter
and Paul." Equally violent in their attacks upon
Christianity were the Karaite writers Japheth ben
Ali and Hadassi— the former in iiis commentaries
on the Bible, and the latter in his "Eshkol ha-
Kofer," in which the fundamental dogmas of Chris-
tianity are harshly criticized. The assertion of the
Christians that God was born of a woman and as-
sumed a human form in the person of Jesus is con-
sidered by Hadassi to be blasphemous. ^Moreover,
the reason given by the Church that God willed the
incarnation of Jesus in order to free the world from
its tiiraldom to Satan, is declared by him to be
absurd ; for. he asks, has the world grown any bet-
ter as a result of this incarnation? are there fewer
murderers, adulterers, etc., among the Christians,
than there were among the pagans?

The first works wholly devoted to the refutation

105

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemics

of Christianity appeared in the second half of the
twelfth century in Spain — the preeminently fertile
source of anti-Jewish writings between the sixth
and fifteenth centuries. They were the outgrowth
of the restless aggressiveness of the Christian clergy,
who, taking advantage of the irruption of fanati-
cism marking the period of the Crusades, planned
the wholesale conversion of the Jews through the
medium of polemical works written by converts
from Judaism. These converts, instead of confining
themselves to the usual arguments drawn from the
Old Testament, claimed to demonstrate from the
Haggadah that Jesus was the Messiah — from the
very part of rabbinical literature which they most
derided and abused! This new method of war-
fare was inaugurated in Spain by
Petrus Al- Petrus Alphonsi (whose name before
phonsi and baptism was Moses Sephardi) in his
Jacob ben series of dialogvies against the Jews,

Reuben, the disputants being himself before
and himself after conversion (Cologne,
1536; later in "BibliothecaPatrum,"ed. Migne.clvii.
535). To arm themselves against these attacks
learned Spanish Jews began to compose manuals
of polemics. About a quarter of a century after the
composition of Judah ha- Levi's famous apologetical
work, the "Cuzari," in which Judaism was defended
against the attacks of Christians, Karaites, and
philosophers, Jacob ben Reuben wrote the "Sefer
Milhamot Adonai." This is divided into twelve
chapters, and contains, besides refutations of the
Christian arguments drawn from the Old Testa-
ment, a thorough criticism of the Gospels and the
Acts of the Apostles, in which he points out many
contradictions.

About the same time Joseph Kimhi, also a native
of Spain, wrote the "Sefer ha-Berit," a dialogue be-
tween a believer and an apostate. The believer
maintains that the truth of the religion of the Jews
is attested by the morality of its adherents. The
Ten Commandments, at least, are observed with
the utmost conscientiousness. The Jews concede
no divine honors to any besides God ; they do not
perjure themselves, nor commit murder, nor rob.
Jewish girls remain modestly at home, while Chris-
tian girls are careless of their self-respect. Even their
Christian antagonists admit that the Jew practises
hospitality toward his brother Jew, ransoms the
prisoner, clothes the naked, and feeds the hungry.
The accusation that the Jews exact exorbitant inter-
est from Christians is balanced by Kimhi's state
ment that Christians also take usurious interest,
even from their fellow Christians, while wealthy
Jews lend money to their coreligionists without
charging anj^ interest whatever.

Great activity in the field of polemics was dis-
played by both Jews and Christians in Spain in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Among the
Christian works of the thirteenth century the most
noteworthy are the " Capistrum Judaorum " and
the "Pugio Fidei" (Paris, 1651; Leipsic, 1667). In
the latter work, Raymund Martin endeavored to
demonstrate from the Talmud, Midrasli, and other
sources that Jesus is announced in rabbinical litera-
ture as the Messiah and the son of God ; that the
Jewish laws, although revealed by God, were abro-

gated by the advent of the Messiali ; that the Tal-
mudists corrupted the text of the Hihk', us is indi-
cated in the " Tikl^iun Soferim." Some
Raymund of Martin's arguments were ufied hy
Martin and Pul)loChriHliuui inhisdisputution with
Nah- NahmanitlcH, who victoriously com-

manides. l)ate(i them before King James and
many ecclesiastical dignitaries. Hoth
theargumentsand I heir refutation were reproduceil in
a special work entitled " Wikkuah," written by Nuh-
manides himself. The subjects di.scu8sed were: (1)
Has the Messiali appeared? (2) Siiould the .Messiah
announced by the Prophets be considered as u god,
or as a man born of human parents? (3) Are the
Jews or the Christians the posse.s.sors of the true
faith? A direct refutation of Raymund Martin's
"Pugio Fidei" was written by Solomon Adrct, who,
in view of the misuse of the Haggadah by converts
to Christianity, wrote also a commentary on that
part of the Jewish literature.

The production of Jewish polemical works in
Spain increased with the frequency of the attacks
upon Judaism, in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, by baptized Jews. Of the latter tlie most
renowned were: Alfonso of Valladolid (Abner of
Burgos), author of the anti-Jewish works " Moreh Ze-
dek" (Spanish version, "El Mustador") and "Teshu-
bot 'al Milhamot Adonai " (Spanish, "Los Batallos
de Dios ") ; Astruc Raimuch (Christian name, Dios
Carne), who was the author of a letter, in Hebrew,
in which he endeavored to verify, from the Old
Testament, the doctrines of the Trinity, original
sin, redemption, and transubstantiation; Pablo de
Santa Maria (Solomon Levi of Burgos), author of a
satire on the festival of Purim, addressed to MeYr
ben Solomon Alguades; Geronimo de Santa Fe
(Joshua ben Joseph al-Lorqui), who wrote the anti-
Jewish "Tractatus Contra Perfidiam Judteorum"
and "De Juda'is Erroribus ex Talmuth " (the latter
was published, under the title " Hcbncomastic," at
Zurich, 1552; Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1602; Ham-
burg, n.d. ; and in Bibliotheca Magna Veterum Pa-
trum, Lyons [vol. xxvi.], and Cologne, 1618).

Against the writings of these converts, the two
last-named of whom organized the disputation of
Tortosa, held before Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna)
in 1413, there appeared a series of works which are
remarkable for the aggressiveness of their tone.
The first of this series was the "'Ezer lia-Dat"of
Ibn Pulgar. It is divided into eight chapters (" she-
'arim'M. the last of which is devoted wholly to the
work of Alfonso of Valladolid. To the letter of
Astruc Raimuch there appeared two answers, the
more interesting of which is that of Solomon ben
Reuben Bonfed, in rimed prose. Apologizing for
di.scussing the contents of a letter not addressed to
him, Bonfed minutely examines the Christian dot'-
mas and proceeds to show how irrational and unten-
able they are. " You twist and distort

Pablo de the Biblical text to establish the doc-
Santa Maria trine of the Trinity. Had you a qua-
and Joseph ternity to prove, you would demon-
ibn Vives. strateit (juite as strikingly and con-
vincingly from the Old Testament."
An answer to Pablo's satire was written by Joseph
ibn Vives al-Lorqui. The writer expresses his aston-

Polemics

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

106

ishment that Pablo should have changed his faith.
Satirically he canvasses the various motives which
might have led him to take such a step — desire for
wealth and power, the gratification of sensual long-
ings— and naively concludes that probably Pablo
had carefully studied Christianity and had come to
the conclusion that its dogmas were well founded.
He (Joseph), therefore, begged Pablo to enligliteu
him on eight specific points which seemed to war-
rant doubts as to the truth of Christianitj': (1) The
mission of tiie Messiah announced by the Prophets
was to deliver Israel. "Was this accomplished by
Jesus? (2) It is expressly stated by the Prophets
that the Messiah would assemble the Jews, the de-
scendants of Abraham, and lead them out from
exile. How, then, can tiiis be applied to Jesus, who
came when the Jews still possessed their laud? (3)
It is predicted that after the arrival of the Messiah,
Palestine, peopled by the descendants of Jacob, who
would have at their head David for king, would en-
joy unbroken prosperity. But is tliere any country
more desolate than that land is now? (4) After the
arrival of the Messiah, God, the Prophets foretold,
would be recognized by the %vhoIe universe. Has
this been fulfilled ? (5) Where is the universal peace
predicted for the Messianic time by the Prophets?

(6) Where is the Temple, with its divine service by
the priests and Levites, that the ^lessiah was to re-
store, according to the predictions of the Prophets?

(7) Great miracles are foretold — the worship in Jeru-
salem of God by all nations; the war between Gog
and Magog ; etc. Did these take place at the time of
Jesus? (8) Did any prophet predict that the Messiah
would abrogate the Mosaic law? "These," says
Joseph ibn Vives, "are only a few of the numerous
doubts that have been suggested to me by the words
of the Prophets. Much more difficult to allay are
my doubts concerning the birth, death, and resur-
rection of Jesus, his intercourse with his disciples
and others, his miracles; but these I would discuss
orally, and not in writing."

A general work against Christianity was written
in Spanish, under the title " Tratado " (" Bittul 'Ikkere
ha-Nozerim " in the Hebrew translation of Joseph
ibn Shem-Tob), by the philosopher Hasdai Crescas.
In a dispassionate, dignified manner he refutes on
philosophical grounds the doctrines of

Hasdai original sin, redemption, tlie Trinity,

Crescas. the incarnation, the Immaculate Con-
ception, transubstantiation, baptism,
and the Messianic mission of Jesus, and attacks
the Gospels. Another general anti-Christian work,
entitled "Eben Bohan," and modeled upon the
"Milhamot Adonai " of Jacob ben Reuben, was
written at the end of the fourteenth century by
Shem-Tob ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, who, in 1376, de-
bated in public at Pamplona with Cardinal Pedro
de Luna, afterward Benedict XIII., on the dogmas
of original sin and redemption. The book is di-
vided into fifteen chapters, the last being devoted
to the refutation of the work of Alfonso of Valladolid
against the " Milhamot Adonai" of Jacob ben Reuben.

Of the same character as the "Eben Bohan," and
of about the same date, are the works written by
Moses Cohen of Tordesillas and by Hayyim ibn
Musa, entitled respectively " 'Ezer ha-Emunah" and

" Magen wa-Romah." A masterpiece of satire upon
Christian dogma is the " Iggeret al-Tchi ka-Aboteka, "
written at the beginning of the fifteenth century by
Profiat Duran and addres.sed to the baptized Jew
David Bonet Bongoron. It was so skilfully com-
posed that until the appearance of Joseph ibn Sheni-
Tob'scommentary thereon Christian authors believed
it to be favorable to Christianity, and frequently
quoted it under the corrupted title " Alteca Boteca " ;
but when they perceived the real character of the
epistle they strove to destroy all the copies known.
Associated with this letter is Duran's polemic " Keli-
mat ha-Goyim," a criticism of Christian dogma,
written in 1397 at the request of Hasdai Crescas,
to whom it is dedicated. It was much used by his
kinsman Simon ben Zemah Duran in his attacks
upon Christianity, especially in those which concern
the abrogation of the ]\Iosaic law and are made in his
commentary on the sayings of the Fathers (•' Magen
Abot," published separately under the title " Keshet
u-Magen," Leghorn, 1785; reedited by M. Stein-
schneider, Berlin, 1881).

The earliest anti-Jewish writings in France date
from the first half of tlie ninth century. Between
825 and 840 Agobard, Bishop of Lyons, wrote three
anti-Jewish epistles, among which was one entitled
"De Insolentia Jud;eorum," and one "Concerning
the Superstitions of the Jews" (" Ago-
In bardi Opera," ed. j\Iigne, civ.). The

France. author endeavors, in the latter work,
to show from various Biblical pas-
sages that the society of Jews should be avoided
even more than association with pagans, since Jews
are the opponents of Christianity. He recounts the
jjudgments passed by the Church Fathers upon the
.Tews, the restrictive measures taken against tlicm
by different councils, their superstitions, and their
persistent refusal to believe in Jesus. Agobard 's
successor in the diocese of Lyons, Bishop Amolo,
also wrote against the Jews, denouncing their super-
stitions, calling attention to the invidious expres-
sions used by them to designate the Apostles and
the Gospels, and exposing the fictitious character of
their arguments in defense of their Messianic hopes
("Contra Jud.Tos," ed. Migne, cxvi.).

However, works like those of Agobard and Amolo
were very rare in France in the tenth and eleventh
centuries; they began to multiply only after the
Crusades, when every priest considered himself
charged with the duty of saving .Jewish souls. The
many anti-Jewish works of the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries include: " De Incarnatione, Adver-
sus Judaeos," by Guilbert; "Annulus seu Dialogus
Christiani et Judfci de Fidei Sacramentis," by Ru-
pert; "Tractatus Ad versus Judicoruin Inveteratam
Duritiem," by Pierre le Venerable; "Contra Juda;-
orum" (anon)'mous) ; "Liber Contra Perfidiam Ju-
dseorum," by Pierre of Blois; "Altercatio Judad
de Fide Christiana," by Gilbert Crcpin; " De Messia
Ejusque Adventu Pneterito," by Nicolas de Lyra.
From the thirteenth century polemical works in
French began to appear, as, for instance, " De la
Disputation de la Svnagogueet de la Sainte Eglise"
(Jubinal, "Mysteres du XV« Siiicle," ii. 404-408);
"La Disputation du Juyf et du Crestian " (" His-
toire Litteraire de France," xxiii. 217).

107

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemloa

On the part of the Jews there appeared in north-
ern France a collection of replies made "to infidels
and Christians " by several members of the Ollieial
family, especially by Joseph the Zealot (who is
credited with the redaction of the IIel)rew version,
entitled "Wikkuah," of the disputation of 1240 be-
tween Nicholas Donin and four representatives of
the Jews), Jehiel of Paris, Judah ben David of
Melun, Samuel ben Solomon, and Moses de Coucy.
The characteristic features of these controversies are
the absence of fanaticism in the clerical disputants
and the freedom of speech of the Jews, who do not
content themselves with standing upon the defen-
sive, but often attack their opponents, not with dia-
lectics, but with clever repartee. The following
may serve as an example: Nathan ben Meshullam
was asked to give a reason for the duration of the
present exile, while that of Babylon, which was in-
flicted upon the Jews as a punishment for the worst
of crimes, idolatry, lasted only seventy years. He
answered: "Because in the time of the First Temple
the Jews made stone images of Astarte and otlier
statues which could not last for long; while in the
time of the Second Temple they deified one of them-
selves, Jesus, to whom they applied many prophecies,
thus creating a durable idol which attracted many
worshipers. Thegravity of the fault, therefore, called
for a corresponding severity in the punishment."

Regular treatises in defense of Judaism against
the attacks of Christianity began to appear in south-
ern France. The most important of these were: the
"Sefer ha-Berit" of Joseph Kinihi (see above);
the "Mahazik lia-Emunah " of Mor-
In decai ben Josiphiah; the "Milhemet

Provence. Mizwah " of Meir ben Simon of Nar-
bonne ; and three works by Isaac ben
Nathan — a refutation of the arguments contained
in the epistle of the fictitious Samuel of Moi'occo
(who endeavored to demonstrate from the Bible the
Messiahship of Jesus); "Tokahat Mat'eh," against
Geronimo de Santa Fe; and "Mibzar Yizhak," a
general attack upon Christianity. An interesting
polemical work was written in France at the end of
the eighteenth century by Isaac Lopez, under the
title "Kur Mazref ha-Emunot u-Mar'eli ha-Emet."
It is divided into twelve chapters or "gates," and
contains, besides a refutation of the Christian argu-
ments drawn from the Old Testament, a thorough
criticism of the Gospels and the Acts of the Apos-
tles, in which the author points out many contra-
dictions and false statements. He accuses Paul of
hypocrisy for prohibiting in one country what he
allowed in another. Thus, for instance, to the Chris-
tians of Rome, who clung to the Mosaic law, he did
not dare to recommend the abrogation of circumci-
sion and other commandments: "For circumcision
verily profiteth, if thou keep the law; but if thou
be a breaker of the law, thy circumcision is made
uncircumcision." "Do we then make void the law
through faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the
law " (Rom. ii. 25, iii. 31). But to the Galatians he
said: "Behold, I Paul say unto you, that if ye be
circumcised, Christ shall jirofit you nothing. P'or
I testify again to every man that is circumcised, he
is a debtor to do the whole law " (Gal. v. 2, 3). " If
this is the case," asks Lopez, "why did not Paul,

who was circumcised, observe the Mosaic lawT
Then, again, why did lie ciiiisi- jiis dis<-iple Timothy
to be circumci.sed?" To the lli-brews Paul Kaid,
"He that despised Mo8«!s' luw died without mercy
under two or three witnesses" (Heb. x. 28); but to
his disciple Titus he wrote, "Hut avoid foolish
questions, and genealogies, and contentions, and stri-
vings about the law ; for they are unprofltable and
vain" (Titus iii. U).

Although tiic " l)isi)Utatio Christianorum ct Judip-
orum Olim Honuu Habita Coram Imperatorr Con-
stantino" (Mayence, 1544) is founilcd on u lirtion.
there is no doubt that religious controversies be-
tween Christians and Jews in Italy were held as
early as the pontificate of Boniface IV. (WJH-eir)).

Alcuin (735-804) relates that while he
In Italy, was in Pavia a disputation took jdaco

between a Jew named Julius and
Peter of Pisa. Yet in spite of the frequency of re-
ligious controversies anti-Jewish writings were very
rare in Italy before the Crusades; the only work of
the kind known to belong to the eleventh century
was tliat of Damiani, entitled "Antilogus Contra
Judicos," in which he sought, by means of numer-
ous passages from tiie Old Testament, such as those
relating to the Creadon, the building of the tower
of Babel, the triple priestly benediction, the thrice-
repeated "Holy," and the Messianic passages, to es-
tablish the Christian doctrines of the Trinity and
the divinity of Jesus (Migne, "Patrologia,"2<l series,
1853; comp. Yogelstein and Rieger, "Gcsch. der
Juden in Rom," i. 26 et seg.).

But from the time of the pontificate of Innocent
III. anti-Jewish writings in Italy, as elsewhere, be-
gan to multiply. To the earlier calumny that the
Talmud contained blasphemies against Christianity,
there was added, after the twelfth century, the accu-
sation that the Jews used Christian blood for ritual
purposes. About the same time also there appeared
the charge that the Jews pierce the consecrated host
until blood flows. The first Jewish polemical wri-
ter in Italy seems to have been Moses of Salerno,
who, between 1225 and 1240, composed "Ma'amar
ha-Emunah" and "Ta'anot," in both of which he
attacked the fundamental dogmas of Christianity.
They were followed by other polemics, the most
important of which are the "Milhamot Adonai " (or
"She'elot u-Teshubot," or " 'Edut Adonai Ne"ema-
nah "), by Solomon ben Jekuthiel ; the " Magen Abra-
ham" (or "Wikkuah"), by Abraham Farissol: and
the "Hassagot 'al Sifre ha-Shilluhim." by Brieli.

The shamefully oppressive economic and polit-
ical conditions under which the Jews labored in
Germany and in Austria during the Middle Ages
rendered them regardless of the fiood of anti-Jewish
writings with which those countries became inun-
dated. It was-not until the fifteenth century that a
polemical work against Christianity api)eared in

Austria. This was written by Lip-
In mann Mnlhausen. under the title "Se-
Germany fcr ha-Nizzahon," and it consisted of
and 354 paragrapiis. the last eight of which
Austria, contained a dispute which took place

between the author and a convert
named Peter. Lipmann quotes in his work 346
passages from the Old Testament, upon which his

Polemics
Police LawB

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

108

argument against Christianity is based. Very char-
acteristic is bis objection to the divinity of Jesus.
"If really God had willed to descend upon the earth
in the form of a man, He, in His omnipotence, would
have found means to do so without degrading Him-
self to be born of a woman." The Gospel itself, ac-
cording to Lipmann, speaks against the assumption
that Jesus was born of a virgin, since, with the pur-
pose of showing that he was a descendant of David,
it gives the genealogy of Joseph, the husband of
Mary.

Among the numerous objections raised by Lip-
mann to the doctrine of redemption, mention maybe
made of the following: "Why," asks he, "did God
cause Jesus to be born after thousands of generations
had lived and died, and tlius allow pious men to
suffer damnation for a fault which tliey had not
committed? Was it necessary that Christ should
be born of Mary only, and were not Sarah, Miriam,
Abigail, Ilulda, and others equally worthy of this fa-
vor? Then, again, if mankind be redeemed through
Christ, and the original sin be forgiven through his
crucifixion, why is the earth still laboring under the
Lord's curse: ' In sorrow thou shalt bring forth chil-
dren. ' ' Thorns also and tliistles shall it bring forth
to thee' [Gen. iii. 16, 18]? Were there invisible
curses which have been removed, while the visible
were allowed to remain? " As may be readily sur-
mised, the " Safer ha-Nizzahon" called forth a num-
ber of replies from Christians. Of these there were
published Wilhelm Schickard's "Triumphator Vap-
ulans, sive Refutatio Blasphemi Libri Hebraici" (Tu-
bingen, 1629), Stephen Gerlow's "Disputatio Con-
tra Lipmanni Nizzachon " (Konigsberg, 1647), and
Christian Schotan's " Anti-Lipmauniana" (Franeker,
1659). In 1615 there appeared also in Germany a
polemical work in Judaeo-German entitled "Der
Jildische Theriak"; it was composed by Solomon
Offenhausen, and was directed against the anti-Jew-
ish "Schlangenbalg" of the convert Samuel Brenz.
The Jewish work which more than any other
aroused the antagonism of Christian writers was the

" Hizzuk Emunah " of the Karaite

Isaac Isaac Troki, which was written in Po-

Troki's land and translated into Latin, Ger-

" Hizzuk man, Spanish, and English. It occu-

Emunah." pies two volumes and is subdivided

into ninety-nine chapters. The book
begins by demonstrating that Jesus was not the
Messiah predicted by tlie Prophets. "This," says
the author, "is evident (1) from his pedigree, (2)
from his acts, (3) from the period in which he lived,
and (4) from the fact that during his existence the
promises that related to tiie advent of the expected
Messiah were not fulfilled." His argument on
these points is as follows: (1) Jesus' pedigree: With-
out discussing the question of the relationship of
Joseph to David, which is ver}' doubtful, one may ask
what has Jesus to do with Joseph, who was not his
father? (2) Hisacts: According to Matt. x. 34, Jesus
said, " Think not that I come to make peace on earth ;
I come not to send peace but the sword, and to set a
man at variance against his father, and the daughter
against her mother, and the daughter-in-law against
her mother-in-law." On the other hand, Holy
Writ attributes to the true and expected Mes-

siah actions contrary to those of Jesus. (3) The
period of his existence: It is evident that Jesus did
not come at the time foretold by the Prophets, for
they predicted the advent of Messiah at the latter
day8(Isa. ii. 2). (4) The fulfilment of the Messianic
promises: All the Prophets predicted that at the ad-
vent of the Messiah peace and justice would reign in
the world, not only among men but even among the
animals; yet there is not one sincere Christian who
would claim that this has been fulfilled.

Among Isaac Troki's objections to the divinitj'of
Jesus the following may be mentioned: The Chris-
tian who opposes Judaism must believe that the Jews
tormented and crucified Jesus either with his will or
against his will. If with his will, then the Jews
had ample sanction for what they did. Besides, if
Jesus was really willing to meet such a fate, what
cause was there for complaint and affliction? And
why did he pray in tlie manner related in Matt.
xxvi. 39? On the other hand, if it be assumed that
the crucifixion was against his will, how then can
he be regarded as God — he, who was unable to re-
sist the power of those who brought him to the
cross? How could one who had not the power to
save his own life be held as the Savior of all man-
kind? (ch. xlvii.).

In the last chapter Isaac quotes Rev. xxii. 18, and
asks how Christians could consistently make changes
of such a glaring nature; for the change of the Sab-
bath from the seventh to the first day of the week
was not authorized by Jesus or any of his disciples;
and the partaking of the blood and tlesii of a stran-
gled beast is a palpable infringement of the dictates
of the Apostles.

A series of apologetic and polemical works, writ-
ten in Spanish and Portuguese by scholarly refugees
from Spain and Portugal, appeared in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, in Holland and in some
places in Italy. Of these the most important arc:
" Sobre el Capitulo 53 de Ezaya e au-
By tros Textos de Sagrada Escritura," by

STaranos. Montalto; "Livro Fayto . . . em Que
Mostra a Verdad de Diversos Textos e
Cazas, Que Alegao as Gentilidades para Confirmar
Suas Seictas," by the same author; "Tractado de la
Verdad de la Ley " (Hebrew trans!, by Isaac Gomez
de Gora, under the title "Torat Mosheh "), by Saul
Levi Morteira; "Tratado da Calumnia," by Nah-
mios de Castro ; " Fuenta Clara, las Excellencias y
Calumnias de los Hebreos," by Isaac Cardoso;
" Prevenciones Divinas Contra la Vance Idolatria de
las Gentes" and "Explicac^ao Paraphrastica Sobre o
Capitulo 53 de Prophcta Isahias," by Balthazar
Orobio de Castro; "Fortalazzo" (Hebrew transl. by
Marco Luzzatto), by Abraham Peregrino.

Though nuich less violent than the Christian anti-
Jewish writings, an extensive anti-Jewish polemical
literature has been produced by Mohammedan schol-
ars. The subject-matter of this literature is closely
connected with the earlier attacks upon Judaism
found in the Koran and the tradition ("hadith "),
the most debated charge being that of having falsi-
fied certain portions of the Holy Scriptures and
o;nitted others. Among the examples of falsifica-
tion is the Biblical account of the sacrifice of Abra-
ham, in which, according to the Mohammedans, the

109

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polemics
Police Laws

name of Isaac was substituted for tliat of Ishmael.
The passages omitted contained the predictions re-
garding the advent of Mohammed and liis mission
to all mankind. A common point for controversy
also was the question of the abrogation of the divine
laws— the Sabbath law, the dietary laws, and other
Biblical commandments.

On the Jewish part very little was written against

Islam, and besides occasional attacks scattered

through the Biblical commentaries of the Kabbin-

ites and Karaites, and the philosophical works of

Saadia, Abraham ibn Daud, Judah ha-

In Islam. Levi, Moses ben Maimon, and others,

Jewish literature contains but two

productions of any extent that are devoted to an

attack upon Islam: the "Ma'amar 'al Yishmael" of

Solomon ben Adret, refuting the attacks upon the

Bible by Abu Mohammed ibn Hazm, and the

" Keshet u-Magen " of Simon Duran.

The following is an alphabetical list of printed
polemical works in Hebrew and Judfeo-German :

n^maNj "^nn hn mJN, Proflat Duran. Published with the anti-
Christian satire of Solomon Bonfed
and the disputation of Shem-Tob ben
Joseph Falaquera. Constantinople,
1570-75; Breslau, 1844, in the col-
lection a^niDM y^^p, with a German
translation by Geiger.
'pllSn ysfin^ "\ nnJK, Joseph ibn Vives' answer to Pablo Chris-
tian!. Published In "Dibre Haka-
mlra," Metz, 1849.
^jiSbti n^riN (Dlsputatio Leoni Josephl Alfonsl cum
Rabbino Judah Mlzrahl), Isaac Baer
Levinsohn. Lelpslc, 18&4.
D>D3n nJlDN, Hayyim Viterbo. Printed in " Ta'an Ze-
kenim," Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855.
njDN 'D, disputations collected from the Talmud
and Midrashim. Isny, 1542.
Q^m DDK, Levinsohn. Against the accusation of
ritual murder. Odessa, 1864 ; Warsaw,
1879, 1881.
JJ1J3''S1J?D "i^T T13, Isaac Jacob ben Saul Ashkenazi. Am-
sterdam, 1696.
D^IXijn ^ipy Sitsa, pasdal Crescas. Published by Epbraim
' Deinard, Kearny, N. J., 1894.
^DV mis p, Isaac Onkeneira. Constantinople, 1577.
n^ian 'D, Joseph Kimhi. Partly published with
the " Milhemet Hobah," Constantino-
ple, 1710.
Ointani' OHi, M. Rosenschein. London.
nnn ^"lai, Isaac ha-Levi Satanow. Berlin, 1800?
|n Vya pniih, Don David Nasi. Frankfort-on-the-Maln,
1866, and by Ephraim Deinard, Kearny,
N. J., 1894.
'?K>n> '") niDM. In Wagenseil's " Tela Ignea Satanae,"
Freiburg, 1681.
J3Din niD''i. In Wagenseil's "Tela Ignea Satanae,"
Freiburg, 1681, and by Stelnschnelder,
Stettin, 1860.
njDNJ "Pny m3M, Solomon ben Jekuthiel (see Jelllnek,
Cn mcnSn) "B. H.'Mi. 43).

'?a2nt, Levinsohn. Odessa, 1864; Warsaw, 1878.
njiDN pirn, Isaac Troki. Published by Wagenseil,
and later in Amsterdam, 1705 ; Jerusa-
lem, 1845; Leipsic, 1857. In Judaeo-
German. Amsterdam, 1717 ; in English,
by Mocatta, London, 1856.
pK""ita nj?tS'nv, Solomon Zalman OfTenhausen. Amster-
dam, 1737 ; under the title " Sefer ha-
Nizzahon," Hanau, 1615; wlthaLatln
translation, Altdorf, 1680.
nuiCNH r^iXD 113, Isaac Lopez. Metz, 1847.
D''1CN '"OipV, Kozin. Smyrna, 18.5.5.
niXD ncnSc, Solomon ben Simon Duran. Published
with the " Keshet u-Magen," Leipsic,
m56.
DiSc'3 ncn'^c, Rosenberg. Wilna. 1871.
mSra ncnSc, Benjaminsohn. New York, 1898.

iDisn iiPDj. Published byAbrebam Berliner, A Itonv
1H75.
■•NIC' nxj, W. Shur. Chlcairo, 1897.
pnxjn '3, Lipmnnn MOIIiauHen. PublUbcd by Wa.
geuHcll, and al AiiisKTilatu. 170SI, 1711,
and KAnlgHiMTg, 1H47.
D'ni3'i f 3ip, various nllgiDUH di8put*tlonii. Pub-
llHhfd by Abraham Geiger, IlresUu,
1H44.
Pay-IDK'PJ ptpu'SFi. Gabriel Isaac I*nai8burger. I>rague, IKSi.

For later polemics sec Anti-8emitih.m: Convkr-

8I0N; DiSPUTATIONB.

Bini.ionRAPiiY: Heathen Polemics: Kmnkel, In Mnnats-
Kctirift, IK56, .^p. HI 91 ; (.riltz. i7.. 1K7L'. pp. ll« axi ; (,lle*,
Hrdlheii IlecoriLi to tUrJcxriMh Srriitturr JiMttrn. Umdon,
ia5<l; Idem, JVofitc of the Jrus nmi Thrir Coutitry l>u the
ClanKic Writern of A utUiuilu, I<'>ndon. 1H7:; ; L. (;.'ig.T. i^tUt
de JudUrorum MuriUuH Atiim liiKiilutiti Scriijlmtlnii- !{'>■
manUt Pcrsuaimm Purrit , Ht-rlln, IMTa : 'I hliinciurt, (> yiii
Tacitr, Dit den Juifn nu Comininnmrtit ilu Ltvrr V. lUi
nUftfriren.in li. K. J. xlx. IHU ; Th.'-<Mlon- Hfiria<ii, TitIk
d'Auteurs Greca ct linmniitH lOhitifH <iu Jiiila\j<m, Parlji.
1895; SchUrer, Oatch. ill. KC'ef seq.; JYlediander. OtJtch. der
Jlldischen A})oUi(ietih. VMi.

Christian Polemics : Wolf. BOiL Hehr. II. 998 et nrq.; De
Rossi, liil)li(>theca AntivhriKtiann, Parma, IWO; Kaywrllng.
Bihl. Kxp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 114 et Hfi/.; Sti'liisihrK-lili-r. Jf i/i^h
Iyiffr«(«rf, p. 314; Winter and WQnsche, J(i<lij«-/i< I.Urrn-
tnr, lii. 65.5-670; Hamburger, R. B. T. Supplement, l«i«i, ii.v.
Diii)ndntif>n ; Ziegler, ReliyiOite DunmtalUmen iin Mitttl-
alter, Frankfort-on-the-Maln, IHftt; Isidore Ix*eb, Ln r<ititr<>-
verne Eclinieiuse Entre leu Clirt'tUnK et lex Juifn du Mourn
Age, Paris. 1888; Israel I^vl, In U. E. J. v. 239 et (V(/.: (,el-
ger, Prohcn Jlldwcher VertheUliguud fJeaen ChrUtenthum,
in Breslauer's Jahrhuch, 1., II. (185i>-51).

Mohammedan Polemics: Stelnschnelder, PolemiKrhe und
Apnlogetische Literatur in ArabUtcher Sjyrache ZxfiKChen
Muslimen, ChrU<ten, und Judcn, In Ahhandlungen fUr die
Kunde dcs Morgeidandes, vl.. No. 3; (ioidzlher, Uclicr Mxi-
hammedanische Polemik (iegen Ahl al-KUah. in Z. I>.
M. G. xxxii. 341-387; Schreiner, Ziir Gcsch. der I'oUmik
Zwischeii Juden und Muhammedancn\,lb. xlll. 591 6T5.
J. I. Bk.

POLEMON II.: King, first of the Pontus and
the Bosporus, then of the Pontus and Cilicia, and
lastly of Cilicia alone; died in 74 c.e. Together
with other neighboring kings and princes. Polcmon
once visited King Agrippa I. in Tiberias (Jo.seplms,
"Ant." xix. 8, § 1). The Herodian princess Bere-
nice, of whom it was reported that she held f(jrbid-
den relations with her brother, chose Polemon for a
husband, in order to mend her reputation, she being
at the time the widow of Herod of Chalcis. Pole-
mon married her not so much for her beauty as for
her riches; and he adopted Judaism, undergoing the
rite of circumcision. His wife soon left him. how-
ever, and Polemon abandoned his Judaism {ib. xx.
7, § 3). According to the Christian Bartiiolomcus
legend, he accepted Christianity, but only to Im?-
come a pagan again. If there is any truiii in the
story, the numerous Jews living in tlie Bosporus
kingdom miist have taken an interest in his con-
version to Christianity and also in its being made
known in the mother country.

BIBUOGRAPHT : Grfttz. Gejich. 4th ed.. 111. MO. 428 : Gu'^hmld,
Kleinc Schrifteu.U.-iol/ioS; Pru«opoffraphia Im}xrn Il»-
mani. 111. 59, No. 406.

o. S. Kn.

POLICE LAWS : Laws regulating intercourse
among citizens, and embracing the care and pres-
ervation of the public peace, health, safety, moral-
ity, and welfare. The prevention of crime is the
main object of the police laws, althougli there arc
many other points not strictly involved in the pop-
ular (ktinition of crime, but materially afTertinp the
security and convenience of the public, which arc
recognized as lying witliin their province.

It is a moot question whether the cities of Judca

Police La-w^s

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

110

had a regulated police force during Biblical limes.
There are many terms in tlie Bible which have been
translated to denote magistrates or police officers;
but the correctness of the translation is questioned
in almost every instance by modern scholars (see
Government). The Deuteronomic
In Biblical code (Dent. xvi. 18) enjoins the ap-

Times. pointment of "shoterim" (A. V. "offi-
cers'"; LXX. ypafifiaTOEiaa-'jU)e'iq\ Tar-
gum, pjyiQ ; and almost all Jewish commentators,
"police officers" whose duty it was to execute the
decisions of the court; conip. Rashi and Ibn E/ra,
Midr. Tan. and Midr. Lekah Tob ad loc. ; Pesik. R.,
ed. Friedmann, p. 149b; Maimonides, " Yad," Sanhe-
driu, i. 1, and " Lehem ^Mishneh " ad loc. ; comp. Prov.
vi. 7) alongside the "shofctim" (judges) in every
town (comp. Ezra vii. 25, A. V. ; LXX. ypaufiareli).
As far as can be gleaned from the Biblical records, the
duties of the " shoterim " Avere to make proclamations
to the people, especially in time ot'war(Dcut. xx.
5, 8, 9; Josh. i. 10, iii. 2), to guard the king's person
(I Chron. xxvii. 1), to superintend public works (II
Chron. xxxiv. 13; comp. Ex. v. 6, 10,14,19, where
the same term is applied to Pharaoh's taskmasters),
and other similar services. The frequent mention
of the shoterim together with the judges (Deut-
xvi. 18; Josh. viii. 33, xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1; I Chron.
xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29), or with the elders of the commu-
nity (Xum. xi. 16; Deut. xxix. 9, xxxi. 28) who
acted as judges in earlier times (see Elder; Judge),
would seem to indicate that these officials were at-
tached to the courts of justice, and held themselves
in readiness to execute tlie orders of the officiating
judge. Josephus relates ("Ant." iv. 8, § 14) that
every judge had at his command two such officers,
from the tribe of Levi. That Levites were later
preferred for this office is evident also from various
passages in Chronicles (I Chron. xxiii. 4, xxvi. 29;
II Chron. xxxiv. 13). Besides officers of the town
there were also officers for every tribe, similar, prob-
ably, to the modern district police (Deut. i. 15; Sifre,
Deut. 144 ; Sanh. 16b). The chief of the judicial de-
partment established by Jehoshaphat seems to have
had also chief jurisdiction over the police (II Chron.
xix. 11; comp. ib. xxvi. 11). Mention is also made
of watchmen who patrolled the city at night and
attacked all suspicious persons (Cant. iii. 3, v. 7).

The Temple had a police force of its own, most of
its officers being Levites. These were the gatekeep-
ers ("sho'arim "; I Chron. ix. 17, 24-

Temple 27; xxvi. 12-18), the watchmen that

Police. guarded the entrance to the Temple
mount, and those that had charge of
the cleaning of its precincts (Philo, ed. Cohn, iii.
210). Levites were stationed at twenty- one points
in the Temple court; at three of them priests kept
watch during the night. A captain patrolled with
ft lantern, to see that tlie watchmen were at their
po.sts; and if one was found sleeping, the captain
had the right to beat him and to set lire to his gar-
ments (Mid. i. 1, 2). Tlie opening and the closing
of the gates, considered to be a very difficult task,
and requiring, according to Josephus ("B. J." vi. 5,
§ 3; "Contra Ap." ii. 10), the services of at least
twenty men. was also one of the watchmen's duties:
and a special officer was appointed to superintend

that work (Shek. v. 1; comp. Schurer, "Gesch."
Eug. ed., division ii., i. 264-268; see Temple).

The Mishnah (Ket. xiii. 1) mentions two judges
of "gezerot" (lit. "prohibitions," "decrees"; see
Gezerah), Admon REN G.\DDAi and TIanan ben
Abishalom (Han.w the Eoyptlxn), who were in
Jerusalem during the latter part of the second com-
monwealth, and the baraita quoted in the Gemara
(Ket. 105a) adds one more, named iSahum the Meile.
The meaning of- the term "gezerot" in this con-
nection, and the significance and functions of these
judges, have been variously explained by modern
scholars (see Frankel, "Darke ha-Mishnah," p. 61;
tdem, in "Monatsschrift." 1852, p. 247, note 5;
Weiss, "Dor," i. 193; Sidon, "Eine Magistratur in
Jerusalem," in Berliner's "Magazin," lb90, pp. 198
et seq. ; Grunwald, ib. 1891, p. 60); but it is safe to
assume that the functions of these judges were simi-
lar to those of modern police magistrates (comp.
Yer. Ket. xiii. 1), although they may have had also
some judicial authority in pctt\' cases. These, un-
like the judges of courts of justice, received a stipu-
lated salary from the Temple treasury ("Terumat
ha-Lishkah/' Shek. iv. 2). Each of them was al-
lowed ninety-nine manahs per annum, which sum,
if not sufficient for his support, might be increased
(Ket. 105a; comp. "Yad," Sliekalim, iv. 7, where
the annual salary is given as ninety manahs).

Mention is made in the Talmud of various police

officials that held office in tlie Jewish communities

of Palestine and Babylon. The Greek names by

which most of them were known indicate tliat they

were introduced during a later period, after Hellenic

influence had become strong among the Jews. Most

of these officials received their authority from the

local courts, and were appointed by

Local tliem as adjuncts to the communal

Police organization. Officers were appointed

OflB.cials. for the following duties: to supervise
the correctness of weights and meas-
ures (D"'DTI3X, a corruption of D^01J'n3J<=«>"P"»'"/^"f;
Sifra, Kedoshim, viii. 8; B. B. 89a); to regulate the
market price of articles (B. B. 89a; according to an-
other opinion, it was unnecessary to appoint offi-
cials for this purpose, since competition would reg-
ulate the price; in Yer. B. B. v. 11, Rab is mentioned
as having been appointed to this office by the exil-
arch); to allot land by measurement, and to see
that no one overstepped the limits of his field (B. B.
68a and RaSHBaM ad loc. ; in B. ]M. 107b, Adda, the
survej'or [nsniB'D]. is mentioned as holding the
office; comp. 'Er. 56a). Besides these, mention is
made of watchmen who guarded the city (B. B. 68a,
according to the interpretation of Maimonides in his
Commentary of tlie Mishnah, and of R. Hananeel,
quoted in RaSIIBaM ad loc. ; comp. Git. 801); SanJi.
98b; Yer. Hag. i. 7; Sheb. iv. 2, end) and of mounted
and armed watchmen who maintained order in the
suburbs (B. Ii. 8a; comp. Yeb. 121b). There were
also officers in charge of the dispensation of charity
(B. B. 8b). Permission was given to the authorities
of every town to supervise the correctness of weights
and measures, to regulate the market price of
articles and of labor, and to jmnish those who did
not abide by the regulations {ih.). The salaries of
all these oflicers were drawn from the town treas-

Ill

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

PoUoe Laws

ury, to which all the inliabitants had to contribute
(see Domicil).

Tlie police laws of tlie Bible and of the Talmud
are very numerous. The Biblical commandment to
build a battlement around the roof of a house, " that
thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any man
fall from thence" (I)eut. xxii. 8), was regarded by
the Rabbis as a general principle, from which were
derived many regulations the object
Special of which was to insure public safety.
Police Thus, it was forbidden to harbor a
Laws. vicious dog or to keep a broken lad-
der on one's premises (B. K. 151)), or
lo keep a pit or a well uncovered or uufenced
(Sifre, Deut. 229; "Yad," Rozeah, xi. 4). Dogs
had to be kept chained ; they might be let loose
during the night only in places where a sudden at-
tack of an enemy was feared (B. K. 83a). Untamed
animals, espociiilly cats that might injure children,
might not be kept; and any one was permitted to
kill such an animal found on the premises of a Jew
{ih. 80b; comp. Hul. 7b). A ruined wall or a de-
cayed tree was not allowed to remain in a public
place. The owner was given thirty days' notice to
remove it ; but if the danger was imminent he was
compelled to remove it forthwith (B. M. 1171);
"Yad," Nizke Mamon, xiii. 19; Shulhan 'Aruk,
Hoshen Mishpat, 416, 1, and Isserles' gloss). No
one was permitted to throw stones into the street
(B. K. 50b) or to build a tunnel under the public
thoroughfare (B. B. 60a), except by special permis-
sion of the city authorities and under their super-
vision (Hoshen Mishpat, 417, 1, Isserles' gloss, and
" Pithe Teshubah " ad loc). Weapons might not be
sold to suspicious persons ('Ab. Zarah 15b; "Yad,"
Rozeah, xii. 12, 14; Shulhan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah,
151, 5)'.

Another set of police regulations was based on
the Biblical expression "Neither shalt thou stand
against the blood of thy neighbor" (Lev. xix. 16).
The Rabbis made it obligatory upon any man who
saw one drowning, or in danger of an attack by
robbers or by a wild beast, to endeavor to save him
(Sifra ad loc. ; Sanh. 73a). The court was obliged
to furnish safe passage to travelers in dangerous
places; so that, wl\,en a murdered man was found,
the elders of the nearest town could conscientiously
sav, " Our hands have not shed this blood " (Deut.
x.xi. 7; Sifre nd loc; Sotah 45b, 46a; "Yad," I.e.
ix. 3; ib. Ebel, xiv. 3). The court was obliged also
to provide wide avenues, furnished wMth posts and
directions, leading to the cities of refuge, so that one
who had committed'murder unwittingly might have
easy access to them in his escape from the liands of
the go 'el (B. B. 90a; Mak. 10a; see Asylum; Aven-
ger OF Blood).

Numerous laws were instituted by the Rabbis
with the view of preserving the health of the com-
munity (see Health Laws). The laws tending to
tlie preservation of the life of dumb
Sanitary creatures, and to the considerate care
Laws. of them, also formed a large portion
of rabbinic legislation (see Cfu'klty
TO Animals). The care of the poor and the proper
distribution of charity were also regulated by law
(see Charity). Many provisions are found in the

Talmud the purpose of which waa to guard free
commercial intercourse. Houds leading from one
town to another liad to be at Icusl eiglil cubit»
wide; so that two wagons, going in opposite direc-
tions, might pass without difllculty. RoadH leading
to commercial centers were to be at least sixleeu
cubits wide (B. B. 100a, b; RaSHBuM ati loe.).
Balconies or other extensions of houses projecting
to the public thoroughfare and trees in the public
streets wiiose branches might obstruct the passage
of a rider mounted on Ids camel were also prohibitetl
(B. B. 27b, 60a). Trees growing near the bunk of
a river, if they impeded freight-laborers in tlieir
work, might be cut down witii impunity (B. M.
107b). Building-materials might not be prepared in
the public street. Stones and bricks brouglil for
immediate use in a building might be deposited in
the street; but the owner was held responsible for
any injury caused tiiereby {ib. llHb). One wlio
broke a vessel left in tiie public street was not re-
quired to pay any damages; but the owner of the
vessel Avas held responsible for any injury caused
by it, or even by its sherds, if he intended to make
use of them (B. K. 28a; see Baha Kamma). Dur-
ing the summer months no water might be poured
into the street; and even in the rainy season, when
this was permitted, the one who poured the water
was held respon.sible for any injury resulting from
it (B. K. 6a, 30a). The pious used to bury tlieir
potsherds and broken glass three " tefahim " (dsts)
deep in the tield in order that tiicy might cause no
injury to any one nor impede the plowshare in its
course; others burned them; and others, again,
threw them into the river {ib. 80a). Among tiie ten
ordinances that applied especially to Jerusalem were
the prohibitions against any projections from pri-
vate houses to the street, against the establishment
of potteries, against the planting of gardens (except
rose-gardens that were suppo.sed to have existed
since the times of the early prophets), against keep-
ing chickens, and against dunghills within the city
limits (B. K. 82b).

Provisions were also made by the Rabbis with
the view of guarding the personal liberty and honor
of the members of the conununity. Stealing a per-
son and selling him into slavery was
Laws Re- punishable by death, according to the
lating to Mosaic law (E.\. x.xi. 16). "They are
Liberty. My [God's] servants, but not servants
to servants," was a principle often
enunciated by the Rabbis (B. M. 10a; Kid. 22b.
based on Lev. xxv. 42). Imprisonment as a punish-
ment is not mentioned in the Bible, although later
it was employed in the ca.se of certain transgressions
(see Imimusonment). The iiayment of damages for
the infliction of a personal injury included also a
fine for the shame which waa caused by such an
injury (see Damage). In inflicting the punishment
of flagellation no more tlian the prescrilK-d number of
stripes might be given, "lest, if he should exceed,
and beat iiim above tliese with many stripes, then
thy brother should seem vile unto thee " (Deut. xxv.
3; see CoKPoiiAL Pinishment). Posthumous in-
dignities at the public execution of a criminal were
prohibited; and when hanging after execution was
enjoined, the body was not allowed to remain on

Police Laws
PoU-Tax

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

112

the gallows overnight (Deut. xxi. 23; see Capital

PUNTSHMENT).

The laws of morality and chastity were elaborated
by the Rabbis iu greatest detail (see Chastity;
Ethics). The gambler was regarded as an outcast:
his testimony was not admitted in evi-
Public dence (see Evidence), nor was his
Morality, oath believed (see Gambling; Per-
jury). The Rabbis took especial care
in interpreting and elaborating the laws touching
upon the property rights of individuals. The bound-
aries of fields were accurately marked ; and a curse
was pronounced upon him who should remove his
neighbor's landmarks (Deut. xix. 14, xxvii. 17; see
Boundaries). Special officers were, therefore, ap-
pointed, as stated above, to measure the fields and
to determine the situation and limits of every one's
land. It was forbidden to keep animals that might
injure the crops of another (B. K. 79b). Dove-cots
were to be fifty cubits distant from a neighbor's
land, in order that the birds might cause no injury
to the seeds (B. B. 23a). Wells, pits, and caves
might not be dug in the vicinity of a neighbor's
property (ib. 17a). An oven might not be con-
structed in one's house, unless it was so built as to
guard against any danger from fire (ib. 20b). Win-
dows and doors might not be constructed so as to
face the windows and doors of a neighbor's house
{tb. 11a; see Easement; Hazakah).

It was not permissible to buj' stolen goods or such
as might be suspected of having been stolen. No
milk, wool, lambs, or calves might be bought from
a shepherd (B. K. 118b), nor wood or fruit from a
hired gardener (ib. 119a). Nothing might be bought
from women who had no personal property, nor
from minors or slaves, except such objects respect-
ing which there could be no suspicion (ib.), nor
might anything be taken from them for safe-keep-
ing (B. B. 51b).

Not only was cheating in business forbidden (Lev.
XXV. 14, 17), but even dissimulation in speech and
misleading statements were prohibited (B. M. 58b),
even when a non-Jew was concerned (Hul. 94a).
Objects might not be "doctored" or ornamented
with the intention of deceiving the buyer, nor might
the finer parts of an article be prominently displayed
in order to attract the eye (B. M. 60a, b). If water
was accidentally mixed with wine, the wine might
not be sold unless the buyer was notified of the ac-
cident (ib.). Special officers were appointed to test
the quality of wine in order to guard against adul-
teration (Tosef., Kelim, B. K. vi. 10; comp. 'Ab.
Zarah 58a, and Rashi, s.v. " Agardemin "). After an
animal had been slaughtered a butcher might not
arrest the free flow of the blood in order to make
the meat weigh more (Hul. 113a).

The prohibition against false weights and meas-
ures applied not only to their use (Lev. xix. 35, 36),
but also to the mere presence of them in one's
house (Deut. xxv. 13-16; B. B. 89b).

"Weights R. Levi declared that the sin of using

and false weights and measures was greater

Measures, than that of the breach of the laws of

chastity ; for the latter could be atoned

for by repentance, while the former could not, unless

the tran.sgressor returned to each one whom he liad

deceived the amount lost by the deception, which
was almost impossible (B. B. 88b). Weights might
not be made of lead, iron, or any other metal liable to
accumulate rust, but only of stone or glass (ib. 89b).
They might not be left in salt; for this might in-
crease their weight (ib.). Ample space was to be
allowed to admit of the scales swinging freely (ib.
89a). The measures were to be cleaned at least
twice every week ; the weights, at least once every
week; and the scales, after every time that they
were used (ib. 88a). The measures were to be
so graded that each one, whether dry or liquid,
should be one-half of that preceding it (ib. 89b, 90a).
The seller was required to add y^j^ in liquid and ^-J^
in dry measures to the actual amount required, iu
order that he might be certain that the measure was
correct (ib. 88b). In places where the custom was
to sell by level measures one was forbidden to sell
heaped measures and rai.se the price accordingly,
and vice versa (ib. ; see WEicnTs and Measures).

Rai.sing the market price by speculation was re-
garded with disfavor by the Rabbis; and he who
practised it was classed together with the usurer and
with him who used false weights and measures, to
all of whom they applied the words of Amos viii.
4-8 (B. B. 90b). It was forbidden to export from
Palestine, even to the neighboring land

Market of Syria, necessary articles of food
Laws. (ib.). In times of famine one was not
permitted to store up necessary arti-
cles of food, even the products of his own field, but
was required to put them on the market. At other
times the storage of foodstufis was permitted to
the farmer, but not to the speculator (ib.). Middle-
men w^ere not tolerated, unless they improved the
product either by grinding the grain into flour or
by baking the flour into bread (ib. 91a; comp.
RaSHBaM, s.v. -'En"). The retail storekeeper
might not derive for himself a gain larger than one-
sixth of the cost of the article (ib. 90a). The inhab-
itants of a town had the right to bar outsiders from
its market, although much freedom was exercised
by the town authorities when the question of allow-
ing a learned man to sell his goods was brought be-
fore them (ib. 21b, 22a). Pedlers might not be de-
barred from selling their goods; for there was an
ancient tradition that Ezra liad permitted pedlers
to sell cosmetics to women in all places (B. K.
82a, b) ; they might, however, be prevented from
settling in a town (B. B. 22a; .see Hawkers and
Pedlers).

The property of a person unable to defend himself
was protected in the following ways: (1) In the case
of minors, th? court appointed a guardian (Ket. 18b,
20a); (2) in the case of the insane, the government
took charge of their property (Hag. 3b; Yoreh
De'ah, i. 5) ; (3) in the case of an absent defendant,
the court appointed a curator, provided he had left
because his life was imperiled; otherwise, the court
intervened only if he had died during his absence
and his property was about to be divided among his
relations (B. M. 38b, 39a).

The only material permissible for legal documents
was material of a kind that would render erasures
or changes easily recognizable (Git. 23a; Hoshen
Mishpat, 42, 1).

113

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Police Laws
PoU-Tax

Bibliography: Blorh, Dan Mnmltrh-TalmudUtche Pnlizei-
recht, Hudapcst, 1879; Hamburper, Jl. li. T. il., s.v. I'olizci;
Hastings, Dkt. Bible, s.v. Mmjistratr. and Officer ; Saal-
schutz, Das Momische Itecht, ch. v., Berlin, lai-l.
E. c. J. H. G.

POLIDO, DAVID, See David Raphael ben
Abkaham Polido.

POLISHER jtrDEL. See Periodicals.

POLITZER, ADAM : Austrian aurist ; born at
Alberti-Insa, Hungary, Oct. 1, 1835; studied niediciue
at the University of Vienna, receiving his diploma
in 1859 and becoming assistant at the university
hospital. Politzer established himself as a physi-
cian in the Austrian capital ; was admitted to the
medical faculty of the university there as privat-
docent in aural surgery in 18G1 ; became assistant
professor in 1870; was chief of the aural surgical
clinic in 1873, and professor in 1895.

Politzer has arranged a well-known anatomical
and pathological museum for the aural-surgical
clinic. He has written many essays for the medical
journals, and is the author of: "Die Beleuch-
tungsbilderdesTrommelfells," Vienna, 1865; "Zehn
Wandtafcln zur Anatomic des Gehororgans," ib.
1873; "Atlas dcr Beleuchtungsbilder des Trommel-
fells " (containing 14 colored tables and 392 diagrams
and illustrations), ib. 1876; "Lchrbuch der Ohren-
heilkunde," Stuttgart, 1878 (4th ed. 1902); "Die
Anatomische Zergliederung des Menschlichen Gehor-
organs im Normalen und Kranken Zustande, " ib. 1889.

Bibliography: Pagel, Biog. Lex.

». F. T. H.

POLKAR, ISAAC B. JOSEPH. See Pulgak,

Isaac b. Joseph.

POLL-TAX : The custom of taxing a popula-
tion at a certain amount per head dates back to very
ancient times. The first time such a tax is men-
tioned is in Ex. xxx. 12-16, where it is stated that
svcry male " from twenty years old and above "
shall give, as "a ransom for his soul," half a shekel
for an offering unto the Lord. There were three
3ther annual contributions obligatory on males, the
imouuts being proportioned according to their
means (comp. Deut. xvi. 16-17). Although the con-
tribution of half a shekel was required only at the
iime of the numbering of the children of Israel, the
rabbinical law makes it an annual tax. There are,
lowever, in the Bible traces of a regular poll-tax.
Ezekiel, remonstrating against exactions, pointed
)ut that the shekel was twenty gerahs (Ezek. xlv.
)-12). This shows that in Ezekiel's time the princes
mposed a greater exchange value on the shekel than
;he prescribed twenty gerahs (comp. Ex. I.e.).

Nehemiah reduced the contribution from half a
shekel to one-third of a shekel, which was used for
;he maintenance of the Temple and for the purchase
)f the sacjifices (Neh. x. 33-34 [A. V. 32-33]). The
Rabbis also, probably on the basis of the passage

in Nehemiah, declared that the pre-

Shekel scribed half-shekel contribution should

Tax, be employed for the purchase of all

the sacrifices necessary in the service
)f the Temple and for the maintenance of the Tem-
ple and the fortifications of Jerusalem (see Shekel
N Rabbinical Litekature). Besides this con-
ribution for religious purposes, the Jews were re-
X,— 8

quired at various times to pay poll-taxes of unknown
amounts to their rulers. An inscription of S.n-
nacherib shows that he impo.sed a per cupilu tax on
all his subjects; the Jcw.s paid the same tux when
tliey were under Syrian control. In tlu; time of the
Second Temple the Greeks, particularly the Seleu-
cidan rulers, apparently exacted u capitation tax
from the Jews (Josephu.s, "Ant." xiii. 2. ^ 3; <<,mp
I Mace. X. 29); Wilcken ("Griechischc 6.struka," 1.
245 <>< »f7.). however, denies that the capitation tax
existed before Augustus. From the reign of tlie
latter the Romans exacted from tiie Jews among
other taxes one known as the "tril)utum capitis."
The Jews rose against this tax. which was both
ignominious and burdensome.

The historians do not agree as to the contribtition
per capita under Herod, against whose oppressive
taxations the Jews complained to the Roman em-
peror ("Ant." xvii. 11, t^ 2). Josephus does not
mention any census which the Romans took in con-
nection with a "tributum capitis" at the time of
Herod. Still. Wieseler ("Synopse." pp. 100 ct seq.)
and Zumpt ("Geburtsjahr Chrisli," pp. 106 f< seq.)
maintain that such a census was taken at that time,
and that it was the cause of the .'^editiejn stirred
up by the scribes Judas, son of Saripheus, and
Matthias, son of Margolothus ("Ant." xvii. 6, § 2).
According to these two historians, while the other
taxes were levied by Herod himself in order to meet
the expenses of internal administration of the prov-
ince the capitation tax was paid into the Roman
treasury.

In 70 c.e. Titus, being informed that the Jews
had paid half a shekel per capita to the Temple, de-
clared that it should thereafter be paid into the im-
perial treasury. This practise continued up to the
reign of Hadrian, when the Jews ob-
Under the tained permission to apply the half-
Romans, shekel to the maintenance of their
patriarch (comp. Basnage, "Histoire
des Juifs," iv., ch. iv.). Nevertheless, it appears
from Appian ("Syrian War." § 50) that Hadrian
imposed on all the Jews of his empire a heavy poll-
tax. It is further stated that the contribution of a
half-shekel continued to be paid to the Roman em-
peror, that it was remitted only under Julian the
Apostate, and that Theodosius reimposed it. This
poll-tax existed during the Middle Ages under tiie
name of "der goldene Opkeupkenmg." In the
Orient the Jews paid the half-shekel for the main-
tenance of the exilarch. and Pethahiah of Regciis-
burg relates that he found at Mosul six thousand
Jews, each of whom paid annually a gold piece, one-
half of which was used for the maintenance of the
two rabbis, while the other half was paid to the
emir (Depping, " Juden im Mittelalter," p. 138).

The age at which the Jews became liable to the
poll tax varied in dilTerent countries. In Germany
every Jew and Jewess over twelve years old i)aid
one gulden. In Spain and England, in 1273, tlie ace
was ten years. The amount varied in liitTerent
epochs. In Anjou the Jews paid ton "sols tour-
nois" as a poll-tax; on certain occasions tlie poor
Jews claimed to be unable to pay this poll tax : in
these cases its collection was left to the community,
which was responsible to the government for 1,000

•Pollak
Pollitzer

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

114

individuals, even when the number of Jews in tlie
city was smaller. In England the tallage furciowu
revenue occasionally took the form of a poll-tax.
In Italy, according to Judah Minz (Respousa, No.
42), a poll-tax was imposed on the community by
its chiefs to the amount of half the communal ex-
penses, the other half being raised by assessment.
Ifl Turkey, in the fifteenth century, the Jews were
subject to a light poll-tax, payable only by males
over twelve years of age. To defray congrega-
tional expenses, the Jewish communities until re-
cently assessed equally every head of a household
("rosh bayit") in addition to collecting a tax on
property (Eracu). A similar tax was demanded
from every family by the Austrian government (see
Familianten Gesetz).

Bibliography : Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Age^,
pp. 40 et seq.; Depping, Lej< Juifs daiia le Mouen Age, Ger-
man transl., pp. 24, l8, 138, 189; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 9,
2bU: ix. 30; Nubling, Judengemeindcn dcs Mittelaltcrs, pp.
xxxvi. et seq., 261 ct seq., 435 et seq.; Reynier, Ecnruimie
Politique et Rurale des Arabes et do- Juifs, pp. 311 et seq.,
Geneva, 1820 ; Schurer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 329 et seq., 529 et
passim.
D. M. Sel.

POLLAK, A. M., RITTER VON RUDIN :

Austrian manufacturer and philanthropist; born at
Wescheraditz, Bohemia, in 1817 ; died at Vienna June
1, 1884. Pollak was trained for a technical career.
In 1836 he established at Prague a factory for the
manufacture of matches, and was so successful that
within ten years he was able to export his goods.
He established branch offices at London in 1846,
at New York in 1847, and at Sydney in 1850, and
extended his trade to South America during the
years that followed. In 1858 he began to trade with
Japan, established a branch at Yokohama in 1859,
and the next year received permission to import his
goods into Russia. Many of the inventions and
improvements used in the manufacture of matches
originated in his establishments, and as a conse-
quence he was awarded many prizes in international
expositions. His chief factories were at Prague,
Budweis, and Vienna, with branches at Christians-
berg, Maderhausen, and Wodnitza.

Pollak's philanthropy was directed principally to
popular education and the encouragement of scien-
tific studies. His name is most closely associated in
this connection with the Rudolphinum at Vienna,
founded in commemoration of the birth of the
Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria and dedicated
Dec. 19, 1868. In this establishment 75 students at-
tending the Polytechnic receive board, lodging, and
all aids to study free. It has an endowment of 160,-
000 Horins, while the interest of an additional 5,000
florins is devoted to prizes for proficiency in physics
and chemistry. Pollak also founded a large non-
sectarian kindergarten at Baden. In 1869 he was
ennobled by the emperor with the title " Von Rudin. "

8. E. J.

POLLAK, JACOB : Founder of the Polish
method of halakic and Talmudic study known as
the PiLPUL; born about 1460; died at Lublin 1541.
He was a pupil of Jacob Maugolioth of Nurem-
berg, with wliose sou Isaac he officiated in the rab-
binate of Prague about 1490; but he first became
known during the latter part of the activity of Judah

Minz (d. 1508), who opposed him in 1492 regarding
a question of divorce. Pollak's widowed mother-
in-law, a wealthy and prominent woman, who was
even received at the Bohemian court, hud married
her second daughter, who was still a minor, to the
Talmudist David Zehner. Regretting this step, she
wished to have the marriage annulled ; but the hus-
band refused to permit a divorce, and the mother,
on Pollak's advice, sought to have the union dis-
solved by means of the declaration of refusal
("mi'un")ou the part of the wife, permitted by
Talmudic law. Menahem of Mersebuhg, a recog-
nized authority, had decided half a ceuturj' previ-
ously, however, that a formal letter of divorce was
indispensable in such a case, although his opinion
was not sustained by the Oriental rabbis. When,
therefore, Pollak declared the marriage of his sister-
in-law null and void, all the rabbis of Germany
protested, and even excommunicated him until
he should submit to Menahem 's decision. Judah.
Minz of Padua also decided against Pollak, who
was sustained by one rabbi only, Meir Pfetl'erkorn,
whom circumstances compelled to approve this
course (Judah Minz, Responsa, No. 13; Gratz,
"Gesch." 2ded., ix. 518).

Pollak had a further bitter controversy, with
Minz's son Abraham, regarding a legal decision, in
which dispute more than 100 rabbis are said to have
taken part (Ibn Yahya, "Shalshelet ha-Kabbaluh,"
ed. Amsterdam, p. 51a).

After the accession of Sigismund I., in 1506, many
Jews left Bohemia and went to Poland, founding a
community of their own at Cracow. Pollak fol-
lowed them, officiating as rabbi and organizing a
school for the study of the Talmud, which, up to
that time, had been neglected in Po-
Becomes land. This institution trained young
Rabbi men to introduce the study of the
of Cracow. Talmud into other Polish commu-
nities. In 1530 Pollak went to the
Holy Land, and on his return took up his residence
at Lublin, where he died on the same day as his
opponent, Abraham Minz. His most famous pupils
were Shachnaof Lublin and Meir of Padua.

Pollak, in transferring the study of the Talmud
from Germany, where it had been almost entirely
neglected in the sixteenth century, to Poland, ini-
tiated a movement which in the course of time domi-
nated the Talmudic schools of the latter country.
The sophistic treatment of the Talmud, which Pollak
had found in its initial stage at Nuremberg, Augs-
burg, and Ratisbon, was concerned
Introduces chiefly with the mental gymnastics of
Pilpul into tracing relationships between things
Poland. widely divergent or even contradictory
and of propounding questions and
solving them in unexpected ways.

Pollak's contemporaries were unanimous in re-
garding him as one of the great men of his time,
although the exaggerations to which his method
eventually led were later criticized with severity
(comp. Gans, "Zemah Dawid," ed. Offenbach, p.
31a). Pollak himself, however, was not responsible
for these, since he modestly refrained from publish-
ing the decisions at which he arrived by his system,
not wishing to be regarded as a casuist whose deci-

115

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pollak
PolUtzer

sions were to be implicitl}' followed. Only a few
quotations from him are found iu the works of other
authors.

Bibliography : Jost. Gesch. dcs Jndcnthums itrirt Seiner
Sekttn, iii. 240 et acq.; Griitz, Gesch. 2d ed., Ix. 58 ct xcq.;
Zuiiz, G. S. Iii. 84 et .seo.; Briill's Jahrh. vli. 31 el seq.; Dein-
bltzer, K7-Uische Bricfe, etc., p. 19, Crtu-ow, 1891.
s. E. N.

POLLAK, JOACHIM (HAYYIM JOSEPH) :

Austrian rabbi; born iu Hungary in IT'Jb; died at
Trebitsch, Moravia, Dec. 16, 1879, where lie officiated
as rabbi from 1828 until his death. He wrote a
cominentary, entitled "Mekor Hayyim" (Presburg,
1849; 3d ed. Warsaw, 1885), on R. Isjiac Arama's
philosophical work " 'Akedat Yizhak," and a biog-
raphy of the same scholar. Pollak was also the
author of a number of Hebrew songs in the annual
"Bikkure ha-'Ittim," and of a scholarly essay on
the Talmudic rules of the KlpO^ DX K*^ in Stern's
"Kebuzat Hakamim," besides being a regular con-
tributor to many Hebrew periodicals.

Bibliography: Fucnn, Keneset Yisrael, P- 366; Fiirst. Bihl.
Jud. iii. \ll ;Neiizeit, 1879, pp. 400-412; Ha-Mawid, 1880, p.
21 ; Zeitlin, Kirmt Sefer, li. 277.
s. M. L. B.

POLLAK, KAIM: Hungarian writer; born at
Lipto-Szent-Miklos Oct. 6, 1835; educated iu the
Talmud at his native city, at Presburg, and at
Satoralja Ujhely. In 1858 he went to Prague, where
he attended Rapoport's lectures, and then taught
successively at the Jewish schools in Szegzard, Hod
Mezo Vasarhely, and Alt-Ofen. When, in 1870, the
Jewish school of the last-named community was
made a municipal common school, Pollak was re-
tained in his position, which he continued to hold
until he was pensioned in 1902.

Pollak has been a prolific writer. Besides several
text-books, one of which, a geometry for pulilic
schools, has passed through eight editions (1st ed.
1878), he has published the following works:
" Heber. -Magyar Teljes Szotar" (Budapest, 1880), a
complete Hebrew-Hungarian dictionary; "Valoga-
tott Gyongyok " (ib. 1886), a Hungarian translation
of Gabirol's "Mibhar ha-Peninim"; "Megillat An-
tiochus" (Drohobicz, 1886), a Hungarian translation
with Hebrew notes; Gabirol's "Tikkun Middot
ha-Ncfesh" (Budapest, 1895); "Izrael Nepenek
Multjabol" {ib. 1896); Gabriel Schlossberger's
"Petah Teshubah" (Presburg, 1898); "Josephini-
sclie Aktenstiicke liber Alt-Ofen" (Vienna, 1902);
and " Die Erinnerung an die Vorfahren " (ib. 1902),
a history of mourning customs. In 1882 and 1883
Pollak edited the religious journal "Jeschurun,"
directed mainly against Rohling.

s. L. V.

POLLAK, LEOPOLD : Genre- and portrait-
painter; born at Lodenitz, Bohemia, Nov. 8, 1806;
died at Rome Oct. 16, 1880. He studied under Berg-
ler at the Academy of Prague, and later in Munich
and (after 1833) in Rome. He became a naturalized
citizen of Italy.

Of Pollak 's paintings, several of which were en-
graved by Mandel and Straucher, the following may
be mentioned: "Shepherdess with Lamb" (Ham-
burger Kunsthalle); "The Shepherd Boy"(Redern
Gallery, Berlin); "Zuleika," from Byron's poem;

and "Maternal Love." He painted also a portrait
of Kiedel, which is owned by the Neue Piuakothek
in Munich.

bibliography: Bryan's IHrtOmaru of I'mutetn and En-
mwcrs. London. 1«(« ; Hum WolfjfimK siuK.r. Allurmriuu
KUmtler-Lcxicun, FrankforUon-the-Muln JtW
« F. C.

POLLAK, LUDWIG: Austrian archeologiKt;
born in i»iague Sept. 14, 1868 (Ph.D. Vienna. 1898).
In 1893 he was sent for a year by tlie Austrian urdv-
ernment to Italy and Greece; and since that time be
has lived in Rome. Besides shorter journeys in
1900 he made an extensive scientific tour through
Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 1898 he was
elected corresponding member of tlie German Ar-
cheological Institutes.

Pollak has published : " Zwei Va.sen ausder Wcrk-
stattIIierons,"Leipsir, 1900; and " Klassische Antike
Goldschmiedearbeiten im Besitze Seiner K.vcellenz
A. T- von Nclidow, Kaiserlich Russischen lioi.schaf-
ters in Rom," ib. 1903. s.

POLLAK, MORIZ, HITTER VON BOR-
KENAU : Austrian tinaiiiicr; born at Vitima Dec.
24, 1827; died there Aug. 20, 1904. After leaving
the gymnasium of his native city, at the age of
twenty-two, he took charge of liis father's whole-
sale leather business, and soon succeeded in extend-
ing his export trade to France and Germany. In
1857 he was elected to the municipal council of Vi-
enna, and took an active part in the relief and con-
struction works in the year of the great flnod (1862).
Soon afterward he took charge of the budget of the
city of Vienna, acting as auditor until his resigna-
tion iu 1885. In 1867 he was sent by the city of
Vienna as one of the delegates on the occasion of the
coronation of the King of Hungary at Budapest,
and in 1873 he was made chairman of the executive
committee of the Vienna Exposition. He entered
the Niederosterreichische Escomptebank as exam-
iner, and was director-general and vice-president
from 1885 to 1898, also officiating as deputy of the
Vienna chamber of commerce, director of the Wiener
Kaufmannshallc, and examiner of the Austro-Hun-
garian bank.

Pollak took a very active part in the affairs of
the Jewish community, filling various offices, in-
cluding finally that of president from May 4. lSS-1, to
Dec. 27, 1885. Besides many other decorations he
received the cross of the Legion of Honor, in recogni-
tion of his services at the Paris Exposition of 1H78;
five years before, for his services in connection with
the Exposition of Vienna, he had received from the
Austrian emperor the patent of nobility with the
title " Von Borkenau."

s. E. J.

POLLITZER, ADOLPH: Violinist; born at
Budapest July 23, 1832; died in London Nov. 14,
1900. In 184'2 he left Budapest for Vienna, where
he studied the violin under Bniim; and in his four-
teenth year he took the first prize at the Vienna
Conservatorium. After a concert tour in Germany,
he went to Paris and studied under Alard. In 1850
he crossed the Channel, and in Loudon his remark-
able talents as a violinist were speedily recognized.
He became leader at Her Majesty's Theatre under

PoUonais
Polotsk

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

116

Sir Michael Costa and also led the new Philharmonic
Orchestra and the Royal Choral Society.

PoUitzer stood preeminent in his day as an inter-
preter of classic chamber music, his playing attain-
ing to what may be called "the great style." As a
teacher of his instrument he was regarded as the
most eminent of his time in England, and many
pupils who attained distinction Jiad studied under
him. In 1861, on the establishment of the London
Academy of Music, he was appointed professor of
the violin. This post he held till 1870, in which
year he succeeded Dr. Wylde as principal of the
Academy, and retained this position until his death.

Bibliography: Jcic. Chron. Nov. 23, 1900.
J.

G. L.

POLLONAIS, AMilLIE : French philanthro-
pist; born at Marseilles in 1835; died at Cap Ferrat
July 24, 1898; daughter of Joseph Jonas Cohen, and
wife of Desire Pollonais. In 1868 she published
her "Reveries Maternelles," in which she cleveloped
an entire system of education for children, and the
next year she followed this with her " Philosophic
Enfautine," a method of self-instruction for chil-
dren. For her devotion to the wounded in the
Franco Prussian war she received the medal of the
Red Cross Society ; and her subsequent visits to the
huts of the peasantry in the canton of Villefranche
formed the basis of her most important work, "A
Travers les Mansardeset lesEcoles" (1886).

Amelie Pollonais was one of the founders of the
"Gazette des Enfants,"and after 1887 a contributor
to the "Foyer Domestique." In 1898 she founded
a society in the interest of prisoners and released con-
victs, reporting her progress in "La Femmc." She
was president of the Societe des Beaux-Arts of Nice.
Shortly after her death the name of the Place de la
Marine and the Boulevard de Saint-Jean, at Ville-
franche, was changed to Amelie Pollonais.

8. J. Ka.

POLLONAIS, GASTON: French journalist;
born at Paris May 31, 1865; son of Desire Pollonais,
mayor of Villefranche, and of Amelie Pollonais.
About 1890 he began journalistic work as the
local correspondent of the "Independance Beige,"
and contributed at the same time to "Le Voltaire,"
"Le Figaro," and "Le Gaulois." He then succeeded
Fernand Xau as editor of "Le Soir," but, leaving
that paper, returned to "Le Gaulois," to which he
has now (1905) been a contributor for five years.
During the Dreyfus affair Pollonais was an enthu-
siastic adherent of the nationalist party. In 1902
he became a convert to Catholicism, his godparents
being the Marquis de Dion and Frangois Coppee.
Pollonais is known also as a dramatist, having pro-
duced "Le Jour de Divorce," "Celle Qu'il Faut
Aimer," "Eve," and "Le Degel."

8. J. Ka.

POLNA AFFAIR: An accusation of ritual
murder in Polna resulting from the murder of
Agnes Hruza March 29, 1899. Polna, a city in the
district of Deutschbrod, Bohemia, with a population
of 5,000, including a small Jewish settlement, was
shocked by a cruel murder. Agnes Hruza, a girl
nineteen years old, living in Klein Veznic, a village
two miles from Polna, and going every day to the

city to work as a seamstress, left her place of
employment on the afternoon of March 29, 1899, and
did not return to her home. Three days later
(April 1) her body was found in a forest, her throat
having been cut and her garments torn. Near by
were a pool of blood, some blood-stained stones,
parts of her garments, and a rope with which she
had been either strangled to death or dragged, after
the murder, to the place where the body was found.
The suspicion of the sheriff was first turned
against four vagrants who had been seen in the
neighborhood of the forest on the afternoon of the
day when the murder was supposed to have been
committed. Among them was Leo-
Leopold pold Ililsner, a Jew, twenty-three
Hilsner years old, who had been a vagrant
Accused, all his life. Suspicion against him
was based on the fact that he had been
frequently seen strolling in the forest where the body
was found. A search in his house showed nothing
suspicious. lie claimed to have left the place on
the afternoon of the murder long before it could have
been committed: but he could not establish a per-
fect alibi. Hilsner was arrested and tried at Kut-
tenberg Sept. 12-16, 1899. He denied all knowledge
of the crime. The only object which could be used
as evidence against him was a pair of trousers on
which some stains were found that, according to
the testimony of chemical experts, might have been
blood, while the garment was wet as if an attempt
had been made to wash it. The most important
witness against him was Peter Peschak, who claimed
to have seen Ililsner, at a distance of 2,000 feet, in
company with two strange Jews, on the day on which
the murder was supposed to have been committed
and on the spot where the body was found. An-
other witness claimed to have seen him come from
that place on the afternoon of March 29 and to have
noticed that he was very much agitated. Both the
state's attorney and the attorney for the Hruza fam-
ily made clear suggestions of ritual murder. Testi-
mony had proved that Hilsner was too weak to have
committed the crime by himself. Still he was sen-
tenced to death for participation in the murder, while
his supposed accomplices were undiscovered and no
attempt was made to bring them to justice.

On the ground of technicalities an appeal was
made to the supreme court (Cassationshof), which
ordered a new trial, to be held at Pisek in order to
avoid intimidation of the jury by the mob, and that
it might not be influenced by political agitation.
On Sept. 20, 1899, a few days after the first trial,
Hilsner was frightened by his fellow prisoners, who
showed him some carpenters working in the court-
yard of the jail and told him that they were con-
structing a gallows for him. They persuaded him to
give the names of liis accomplices, as
The "Con- by doing so he would obtain a commu-
fession." tation of his sentence. Hilsner, a man
of little intelligence, fell into the trap,
and implicated Joshua Erbmanu and Solomon
Wassermann as those who had assisted him. Being
brought before the judge on Sept. 29, he declared
that this charge was false. On Oct. 7, however, he
reiterated the charge, but again recanted on Nov.
20. Fortunately for those he had accused, they were

117

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Pollonala
Polotak

able to prove perfect alibis, one of thcin liiwing
been in jail on the day of the murder, while the
other proved, from certificates of poorhousea in
Moravia which he had visited as a beggar, that he
could not possibly have been in Polna on tliat day.

Meantime anti-Semitic agitators tried their best

to arouse a strong sentiment against the Jews in

general and against Hilsner in particular. The

"Deutsches Volksblatt" of Vienna sent a special

reporter to the place to make an investigation.

Hilsner's brother was made drunk at

Anti- a wine-shop and was induced to tell

Semitic what the anti-Semites wished him to

Agitation, say. The "Vaterland," the leading

organ of the clericals, leiterated the

blood accusation and produced evidence that the

Church had confirmed it. In various places where

political tension was very strong, as in Holleschau

and in Nachod, sanguinary excesses took place.

Neither a public indignation meeting which was

called by the Jewish congregation of Vienna (Oct. 7)

nor an appeal which was made to the prime minister

had any tangible effect.

The sentence of four months in jail imposed
upon August Schreiber, one of the editors of the
"Deutsches Volksblatt," for libeling the Jews (Dec.
11) only added fuel to the fire. Violent speeches
against the Jews were delivered in the Reichsrath
(Dec 12) ; and Dr. Baxa, the attorney for the Hruza
family, in a speech delivered in the Bohemian Diet
(Dec. 38), accused the government of partiality to
the Jews.

Meantime Hilsner was accused of another murder.
Maria Klima, a servant, had disappeared July 17,
1898, and a female body found Oct. 27 following
in the same forest where that of Agnes Hruza had
been discovered, had, with great probability, been
identified as that of the missing girl. Decomposition
was, however, so advanced that not even the fact
that the girl had been murdered could be estab-
lished. Hilsner, charged with this crime also, was
tried for both murders in Pisek (Oct. 25-Nov. 14,
1900). The witnesses at this trial became more defi-
nite in their statements. Those that at the first trial
had spoken of a knife which they had seen in Hils-
ner's possession, now asserted distinctly that it was
such a knife as was used in ritual slaughtering. The
strange Jews who were supposed to have been seen
in company with Hilsner were more and more par-
ticularly described. When witnesses were shown
that the testimony given by them at the second trial
differed from that given at the first trial, they said
either that they had been intimidated by the judge
or that their statements had not been correctly
recorded.

A special sensation was created by Dr. Baxa, who
claimed that the garments of Agnes Hruza had been
saturated with blood after the first trial in order to
refute the supposition that the blood had been used
for ritual purposes. The anti-Semites sent agitators
to the place of trial, "L'Antijuif " of Paris being
represented by a special reporter. A Bohemian jour-
nalist, Jaromir HuSek, editor of "fesky Zajmy,"
constantly interrupted the trial by making remarks
which were intended to prejudice the jury against
the defendant.

The verdict pronounced Hilsner guihy of having
murdered both Agnes Hruza ami Mariu Klinm and
of having libeled Jo.sliua Krbinanu and Soiomou
Was.sermann. He was sentenced to death (Nov. 14,
1900), but the sentence was commuted by tlie em'
peror to imprisonment for life. (Jwing i,/the agita-
tion of the anti-Semites, various attempts to prove
Hilsner's innocence were futile, espcriallv tliat nmde
by Profes.sor Masaryk of the Bolicmiuu" University
in Prague, a Chri.stian wlio proposed the theory lliat
Agnes Hruza was not killed at tlie jilaee where her
body was found and that siie was most likely the
victim of a family (juarrel, and that made bv Dr.
Bulowa, a Jewish physician. ']).

POLONNOYE : Town in the district of Novo-
grad, Volhynia, Russia. It was a fortified place in
the middle of the seventeenth century, when about
12,000 Jews found there a refuge from the neigh-
boring towns at the time of the Cossacks' Upkicino.

Polonnoye had two well known rabbis in the
seventeenth century, Solomon Harif and liis son
Moses, who later became rabbi of Lemberg (see
Buber, "Anshe Shem," p. 160, and I). Maggid.
"Zur Geschichte und Genealogie der Gllnzburge."
p. 221. St. Petersburg, 1899); but the best-known
occupant of the rabbinate was undoubtedly Jacob
Joseph ha-Kohen (d. 1769), whose principal work.
"Toledot Ya'akob Yosef " (Miedzyboz and Koretz.
1780, and numerous other editions), in which the
teachings of R. Israel Ba'al Shem were first set
forth in literary form, was burned in the syna-
gogue-yard of Wilna when the war against Hasidism
was commenced there.

Polonnoye had a Hebrew printing-oflace at the
end of the eighteenth century and at the beginning
of the nineteenth. The earliest work which is
known to bear the imprint of that town is the re-
sponsa collection "Me'ir Netibim" (1791), by R. MeTr
b. Zebi Margoliot; and the latest is Hayyim ibn
'Attar's " Rishon le-Ziyyon " (1809), on a part of the
Bible.

At present (1905) the population of Polonnoye ex-
ceeds 10,000, about 50 per cent of whom are Jews.

Bibliography: Brockhaus-Efron, KntziklopnUrhrski N/oror;
Graetz, Hist. v. 11; Hannover, Ynren Mtzulah. pp. 2K et
seq., Cracow, 1896; Walden, Shem ha-Oai<'>Um hc-Haflaah,
p. 103, Warsaw, 1882.
H. 1{. P. Wl.

POLOTSK (POLOTZK) : District town in the
government of Vitebsk, Russia. The first mention
of its Jewish community occurs in \5^)l. when, at the
Polish Diet held at Wilna, Polotsk is expressly named
in a list of towns whose Jews were to be exempt
from the special tax known as "Serebeshchizna "
(" Akty Yuzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii." i. 133). There
are indications, however, of the existence of Jcwb at
Polotsk as early as 1490 (" Sbornik Iinperatorskavo
Istoricheskavo Obshchestva," xxxv. 41-43). In 1509
the baptized Jew Abraham Ezefovich. a non-resi-
dent of Polotsk, is spoken of as farmer of it.*; rev-
enues and customs ("Aktovya Kiiigi Metriki Litov-
skoi Zapisei," No. 8), similar positions being held
about 1525 by his brother Michael {ib. No. 14. p.
285), and about the middle of the same century by
another Jew, Felix (ib. No. 87, p. 242).

In 1563, in the war between the Russians and the

Polotsk
Poltava

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

118

Poles over Smolensk, the Muscovite grand duke
Ivan the Terrible, having captured Polotsk, ordered,
according to the testimony of an eye-witness, that
all the Jews who refused to adopt Christianity —
about 300 in number — should be thrown into the
Diina (Sapunov, "Vitebskaj'a Starina," iv. 119, 189,
232). In 1580, however, a Jewish conmiunity is
again found in the town; but the letters patent of
the so-called "Magdeburg Rights" of that year
contain an edict against the Jews of Pi)lotsk, de-
pri ving them of the right to trade and to build or buy
houses (•' Akty Yuzhnoi i Zapaduoi Rossii," iii. 255).
About seveuty-tive years later (ICoo), tiie Russians,
with whom the Cossacks under Chmieluicki were
allied, again overran Lithuania, and the Jewish
communit}' at Polotsk met the fate of its fellow
communities in Poland in tlie bloody years of 1648
and 1649. The estates of the slaughtered Jews seem
to have been distributed among the army officers
and the nobiUty ("' Vitebskaya Starina," iv., part 2,
p. 77).

In the sixteenth centur}' Polotsk was more pros-
perous than Wilna. It had a total population of
100,000, and presumably its Jewish community was
well-to-do, although the fact that its taxes were
farmed to two Jews of Wilna (see R. Solomon Luria,
Responsa, No. 4) might be adduced as evidence to
the contrary.

Before Polotsk was finally annexed to Russia (1772)
it had lost its former importance, and a majoritj'^ of
its inhabitants were Jews. The town
Under the was at first incorporated in the gov-
Russians. ernment of Pskov. In 1777 it was
made a government citj', and is men-
tioned as such in the letter against Hasidism which
was sent out by Elijah Gaon of Wilna in 1796 (see
Yazkan, "Rabbenu Eliyahu mc-Wilna," p. 73,
Warsaw, 1900, where "Gubernia Plock " is a mis-
print for " Polotsk "). In 1780 the town had 360
wooden houses, of which 100 belonged to Jews; but
the number of Jewish fannlies amounted to 478, as
against 437 Christian families. In the same year
Russia, in the flush of exultation over the lion's
share in the division of Poland which liad fallen
to her, gave the Jewish merchants of the govern-
ment of Polotsk eejual rights with other merchants
("Poinoye Sobraniye Zakonov," xx.. No. 14,962).
Fourteen years later, however, this policy was
changed, and a double tax was imposed in Polotsk
and in several other governments upon the Jews
who wished to avail tiiemselves of the privilege to
become recognized burghers or merchants. In case
a Jew desired to leave Russia he could do .so only
after having paid in advance the doul)le tax for
three years {ih. xxiii.. No. 17,224). In 1796 Polotsk
became part of the government of White Russia;
since 1802 it has been a part of the government of
Viteb.sk. The policy of discriminating against the
Jews was manifested again in 18:^0, when all the mer-
chants of Polotsk except Jewish ones Avere granted
immunity from gild- and poll-taxes for ten years
("Poinoye Sobraniye Zakonov 1 1." xii.. No. 10,851).

Polotsk has been one of the strongest centers of
Hasidism in Lithuania, and has been also the seat
of a zaddik. On the whole, however, Polotsk has
never been distinguished as a center of Jewish

learning, and the names of but very few of its ear-
lier rabbis or scholars have been preserved in Jew-
ish literature. Among them were Zebi Ilirsch b.
Isaac Zack, rabbi of Polotsk and Shkud (1778),
who was probably succeeded by Judah Lob b.
Asher Margoliotii; Israel Polotsker, one of the
early Hasidic rabbis (at first their opponent), who
went to Palestine in 1777, returned, and died in Po-
land; and R. Phinehas b. Judah Polotsk, " maggid "
of Polotsk for eigliteen years in the latter part of the
eighteenth century and author of numerous works.
R. Phinehas b. Judaii afterward settled in Wilna;
he became a pupil of Elijali Gaon, and
Rabbis and died there Jan. 15, 1823. Among the

Scholars, later rabbis of Polotsk were Senior
Solomon Fradkiu, Jacob David Wi-
lowsky, Judah Meshel ha-Kohen Zirkel, and Solo-
mon Akselrod (b. Nov. 1, 1855; became rabbi of
Polotsk in 1901). Senior Solomon Fradkin was
known later as Reb Zalmen Lubliner (b. Liadi, gov-
ernment of Moghilef, 1830; d. Jerusalem April 11,
1902); he was rabbi of Polotsk from 1856 to 1868.
Jacob David Wilowskj', later rabbi of Slutsk and
chief rabbi of the Orthodox congregations of Chi-
cago (1903-4), was rabbi from 1883 to 1887. Judah
Me.shel ha-Kohen Zirkel (b. 1838) assumed the rab-
binate in 1895, and occupied it until his death. May
26, 1899.

The Hasidim of Polotsk usually maintain their
own rabbinate ; in the latter part of the nineteenth
century it was held by Eliezer Birkhan (see Efrati,
"Dor we-Dorshaw," p. 58, Wilna, 1889). The en-
graver and author Yom-Tob, who became well
known in England under the name of Solomon
Bennett, was born in Polotsk about 1757, and lived
there until about 1792 (see "Ha-Meliz," 1868, pp.
85, 161-162).

The population of Polotsk in 1897 was over 20,000,
of which more than half are Jews. It has most of
the institutions usually found in a Russian Jew-
ish community, including a government school for
boj's. It is an Orthodox community, and the sale, by
a Jew, of anything on a Sabbath is almost an im-
heard-of occurrence there (" Ha-Meliz, " 1897, No. 89).
Tlie district of Polotsk, exclusive of the city, has
only 3 Jewish landow ners in a total of 567.

Bibliography : Griitz, Ga^ch. Het)revv transl., vii. 3.58, viii. l.^O;
Kntziklopedichexki Slovar, xxiv. 36.S; liegcMy, ).. Nos. ~()8,
473, 528-.530, 6^1,969; BershadskM. Litoi:<kiye Ycvreyi. p. 340;
idem, Riu^^ko-Yevrciski Ai'khiv, i.. No. 97; ii.. No. KR); iii.,
Nos. 60, 71, 84 ; B. O. Lewanda, Shorn ik Zakonov. Nos. .');{, 43,
3.59: Fuenn, Kirjiah Ne'cmnnalu I>P- 14, 3;i5, Wilna, 1S60;
Guiiand, Le-Korot }ta-(icze.rnt bc-Visracl. iv. .34; Eisen-
stadt-Wiener. 7->aV(< Kedoshim, p. 16, St. Petersburg?, 1897-
1898; Eisenstadt, liablMnaw wa-Sofcraw. iii. 5-38, iv. 39;
Waldcn, Shcni ha-Ocdolim }ic-Hadaish, p. 75.
II. K. A. S. AV.-P. Wi.

POLOTSK, PHINEHAS B. JUDAH : Polish
coiHiiunlaior on the Bible; lived at Polot.sk, Poland,
in the eighteenth century. He wrote commentaries
on four books of the Old Testament, as follows:
"Shebet mi-Yehudah" (Wilna, 1803), on Proverbs;
"Derek ha-Melek " (Grodno, 1804), on Canticles; a
commentary on Ecclesiastes (rt. 1804); an(l"Gibe'at
Pinehas " ( Wilna, 1808), on the Book of Job. Other
works by him are: an extract, which he entitled
"Kizzur Eben Bohan " {if>. 1799), from the great
work of Kalonymus b. Kalonymus; " Rosh ha-
Gibe'ah" (ib. 1820), in two sections, the first treat-

119

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polotsk
Poltava

ing of morals and asceticism, and tlie second con-
taining sermons on the Four Parasliiyyot; and
"Maggid Zedek," on the 613 commandments, wliich
work is still unpublished.

BinuoGRAPHY : Fiirst, TiihJ. Jud. 111. Ill; Benjacob, (hfariia-
Sefarim, p. 3, No. 5, ct passim.
K. C. 8. O.

POLTAVA : Government of Little Russia, which
came under Russian domination in 1764, and whose
present organization was established in 1802. It has
a Jewish population of 111,417, the total population
being 2,780,427 (census of 1897). See table at end of
article.

Poltava : Capital of the above-named govern-
ment. It had a small Jewish community, almost
entirely Hasidic, before Jews from Lithuania, Po-
land, and other
parts of Russia
began to arrive
there in larger
numbers after
the great " Ilyin-
skaya" fair had
been transferred
to that city from
Romny in 1852.
A Sabbath- and
Sunday-school
for Jewish ap-
prentices was es-
tablished there
in 1861 ("Ha-
Karmel," Rus-
sian Supple-
ment, 1861, Nos.
46-47). Aaron
Zeitlin then held
the position of
" learned Jew "
under the gov-
ernor of Poltava.

Theanti-Hasi-
dim, or Mitnag-
gedim, soon in-
creased in num-
bers, and erected
a synagogue
for themselves
about 1870. In 1863 Aryeh LOb Seidener (b. 1838;
d. in Poltava Feb. 24, 1886) became the govern-
ment rabbi, and during the twenty-three years in
which he held the position he was instrumental in
establishing various educational and benevolent in-
stitutions and in infusing the modern spirit into the
community. He was assisted in his efforts by the
teachers Michael Zerikower, Eliczer Hayyim Rosen-
berg, Abraham Nathansohn, and other progressive
men. In 1890 Aaron Gleizer, son-in-law of Lazar
Zweifel, was chosen to succeed Seidener. Eliezer
AkibahRabinovich(b. Shilel, government of Kovno,
May 13, 1862), whose project of holding a rabbinical
conference in Grodno in 1903 aroused intense oppo-
sition, has been rabbi of Poltava since 1893. One of
the assistant rabbis, Jacob IMordecai Bezjialov,
founded a yeshibah there. Poltava has a Talmud
Torah for boys (250 pupils), with a trade-school con-

Synagogue at Poltava, Russia.

(From a photogrnph.)

nected witli it, and a corresponding institution for
girls. Ithasa Jewisii home for the aged (16inmiite8
in 1897), u Hebrew literary society, and soverul churi-
table and Zionist organizations. The most promi-
nent among tlie Maskilim or progressive HcIikw
scholars who have resided in Poltava was Ezckitl b.
Joseph Mandelstamm (born in Zhagory, government
of Kovno. in 1812; died in Poltava April 13, IM'JI).
author of the Rii)liealonomastieon"()/.ariia-.Slii-in<it"
(War.'^aw, 1889). with a "Sefer lm-Miilu'lm,"or sup-
plement, which was printed posllnim " ' , IR94.
He was the father of Dr. Ma.x Man. mm of

Kiev. Michel Gordon's well-known YiddiHli song
beginning "Ihr seit doch, Reb Yud. in Poltava
gewen " is a humorous allusion to the moral pitfalls
in the way of pious Jews of the older Polish com-

m u u i t i e K w h o
settled in the lib-
eral-minded Pol-
tava. The wri-
ter Alexander
SQsskind Rubi-
novich, A. M.
Borucljov (con-
tributor to "Ha-
Shilouh "), and
Benzion MirkiD
(journalist) are
residents of Pol-
tava. Among
the prominent
Jews of Poltava
in early times
were the fami-
lies of Zelcnski.
Portugalov, and
"Warshavski.
The city has a
total ))0|)ulation
of 53.060, of
whom 7,600 are
Jews.

K r e m e n -
tchug' : City in
the government
of Poltava, on
the left bank of
the Dnieper. It
now (1905)includes the suburb of Kryukov on the op-
posite bank, and has the largest Jewish community in
thegovernment,35,179—orabout 60 per cent of the to-
tal population of the city (1897). It was the first of
the important cities of southwestern Russia to which
Jews from Lithuania and Poland began to flock
about the middle of the nineteenth century. Even in
the calamitous years 1881-82, when anti-Jewish riots
occurred in the government of Poltava, numer-
ous Jews from other places went to Krcmentohug.
where the local Jewish community raised for them a
relief fund of about 40.000 rubles.

R. Isaac of Krementchug. who died there Dec..
1833, was among the earliest Hasidim of that city.
Ne.xt in importance was Abraham Fradkin ' m

Jacob Lapin addressed a letter which n; . in

his "Reset ha-Sofer." pp. 11-12, Berlin. 1857).
Other prominent men in tlic Jewish community

Poltava
Polygramy

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

120

were: Lipavski, Zlatopolski. Michael Ladyzhenski.
Sergei (Sbmere) Roseuthal, David Sack (son of
Hayyitn Sack of Zliagory), and Solomon, Marcus,
and Vasili Rosenthal.

Among those who went to Krcmentcluig in 1864
was Herman Rosenthal, who established a printing-
office there in 1869, and organized a circle of Maski-
lim, among whom were Eliezer Schulmanx, J.
S. Olschwaxg, L. and M. Jakobovich, and M. Sil-
berberg (see Zedcrbaum, "Massa Erez,'" in "Ha-
Meliz," 1869, No. 1). Rosenthal published the first
work of M. Morgulis on the Jewish question, "So-
braniye Statci " (1869), the first almanac of Kremen-
tchug, and many other works. He was for eight
years a member of the city council (1870-78), and it
was owing to his efforts that the Realnoye Uchi-
lishche (Realgymnasium) was built in 1872. The
best-known rabbi of Krementchug was Joseph b.
Elijah Tumarkin, who died there in 1875. After his
death the Mitnaggedim elected Meir LOb Malbim as
rabbi, but he died while on his way to assiune the
position (Sept., 1879), and the candidate of the Hasi-
dim of Lubavich, Ilirsch Tumarkin, the brother and
son-in-law of Meir's predecessor, was elected to the
position. The government rabbis were Freidus
(1865), Mochan (1867-71), a son-in-law of Seidener
of Melitopol, Ch. Berliner, and Freidenberg(whowas
reelected in 1899). The present (1905) rabbi is Isaac
Joel Raphalovich.

Krementchug has numerous synagogues and the
usual educational and charitable institutions, in-
cluding a Talmud Torali, with a trade-school in
connection with it, founded by Mendel Seligman ;
a hospital, with a home for aged persons ("Ila-
Meliz," 1890, No. 139); the society Maskil el Dal
(founded 1898); and several Zionist organizations.
It is the most important business and industrial
center in the government.

About a dozen other cities and towns in the govern-
ment of Poltava contain Jewish communities, those
of Pereyaslavl and Romny being among the largest.

BiBLioGRAPnr : Keneset Tisrael, 1. 1124 ; Ha-Meliz, 1883, No.
96 ; 1890, No. 7 ; Ha-Shahar. vl. 215-218, ix. 183 ct ticq.; Eisen-
stadt-Wiener, Da'at Kedbshim, p. 26, St. Petersburg, 1897-98 ;
Ha^a^efirah, 1897, No. H.
H. R. P. Wl.

Population op Poltava Government in 1897.

District.

Gadyach

Khorol

Kot)elyaki

Konstantlnograd

Krementchug

Lokhvltza

Lubny

Mlrgorod

Perevaslavl

Plrvatln

Poltava

Prflukl

Romny

Zenkov

Zolotonosbi

Total in government,

Total
Population.

142.797
174,729
217,876
232,.565
242,482
1.51,218
136,606
1.57,727
185,389
164.127
227,814
192.507
186,482
140,4.53
227,a55

Jewish
Population.

3,233
3,780
3,448
1,938

35,179
4,566
4,527
3,046

10,079
4,987

11,895
8,055
7,145
1,839
7,700

2,780,427

111,417

Per-
centage.

2.26
2.16
1.58
0.84
14.51
3.02
3.31
1.93
5.44
3.00
5.22
4.18
3.83
1.31
3.38

4.02

H. R. V. R.

POLYGAMY : The fact or condition of having
more than one wife or husband at a time; usually,

the practise of having a plurality of wives. While
there is no evidence of a polyandrous state in prim-
itive Jewish society, polygamy seems to have been
a well established institution, dating from the most
ancient times and extending to comparatively mod-
ern days. The Law indeed regulated and limited
this usage; and the Prophets and the scribes looked
upon it with disfavor. Still all had to recognize
its existence, and not until late was it completely
abolished. At no time, however, was it practised so
much among the Israelites as among otlicr nations;
and the tendency in Jewish social life was always
toward ^Ionoga.my.

That the ideal state of human society, in the mind
of the primitive Israelite, was a monogamous one is
clearly evinced by the fact that the first man
(Adam) was given only one wife, and that the first
instance of bigamy occurred in the family of the
cursed Cain (Gen. iv. 19). Noah and his sons also
are recorded as having only one wife each {ib.
vi. 7, 13). Abraham had only one wife; and he
was persuaded to marry his slave Hagar {ib. .\vi. 2,
3; see Pii.egesh) only at the urgent request of his
wife, who deemed herself barren. Isaac had only
one wife. Jacob married two sisters, because he
was deceived by his father-in-law, Laban {ib. xxix.
23-30). He, too, married his wives' slaves at the re-
quest of his wives, who wished to have children {ib.
XXX. 4, 9). The sons of Jacob as well as Moses and
Aaron seem to have lived in monogamy. Among
the Judges, however, polygamy was practised, as
it Avas also among the rich and the nobility (Judges
viii. 30; comp. ib. xii. 9, 14; I Chron. ii. 26, iv. 5,
viii. 8). Elkanah, the father of Samuel, had two
wives, probably because the first (Hannah) was
childless (I Sam. i. 2). The tribe of Issachar was
noted for its practise of polygamy (I Chron. vii. 4).
Caleb had two concubines {ib. ii. 46, 48). David
and Solomon had many wives (II Sam. v. 13 ; I Kings
xi. 1-3), a custom which was probablj' followed
by all the later kings of Judah and of Israel (comp.
I Kings XX. 3; also the fact that the names of
the mothers of most of the kings are mentioned).
Jehoiada gave to Joash two wives only (II Chron.
xxiv. 3).

There is no Biblical evidence that any of the Proph-
ets lived in polygamy. Monogamous marriage was
used by them as a s^'mbol of the union
Prophetic of God with Israel, while polj'gamy

Attitude, was compared to polytheism or idola-
trous worship (Hos. ii. 18; Isa. 1. 1;
Jer. ii. 2; Ezek. xvi. 8). The last chapter of Prov-
erbs, which is a description of the purity of home
life, points to a state of monogamy. The marriage
with one wife thus became the ideal form with the
great majority of the people; and in post-exilic
times polygamy formed the rare exception (Tobit i.
10; Susanna 63; Matt. xvii. 25, xix. 9; Luke i. 5).
Herod, however, is recorded as having had nine
wives (Josephus, "Ant." xvii. 1, § 3).

The Mosaic law, while permitting polygamy, in-
troduced many provisions which tended to confine
it to narrower limits, and to lessen the abuse that
might arise in connection with it. The Israelitish
woman slave who was taken as a wife by the son of
her master was entitled to all the rights of matri-

121

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poltava
Polygraxny

mony (see Hcsbaxd and Wife), even after he had
taken another wife ; and if they were withheld from
her, she had to be set free (Ex. xxi. 9-11; see
Slaves). One who lived in bigamy might not show
his preference for the children of the more favored
wife by depriving the first-born son of the less
favored one of his rights of inheritance (Deut. xxi.
15-17; see Inheritance). The king should not
"multiply wives" (j'6. xvii. 17; comp. Sanh. 21a,
where the number is limited to IS, 24, or 48, accord-
ing to the various interpretations given to II Sam.
xii. 8); and the high priest is, according to the rab-
binic interpretation of Lev. xxi. 13, commanded to
take one wife only (Yeb. 59a; comp. Yoma 2a).

The same feeling against polygamy existed in
later Talmudic times. Of all the rabbis named in
the Talmud there is not one who is mentioned as

having lived in polygamy. The gen-
Rabbinic eral sentiment against polygamy is
Aversion illustrated in a story related of the
to son of R. Judah ha-Nasi (Ket. 62a).

Polygamy. A peculiar passage in the Targum

(Aramaic paraphrase) to Ituth iv. 6
points to the same state of popular feeling. The
kinsman of Elimelech, being requested by Boaz
to marry Ruth, said, "I can not redeem; for I
have a wife and have no right to take another in
addition to her, lest she be a disturbance in my
house and destroy my peace. Redeem thou ; for
thou hast no wife." This is corroborated by R.
Isaac, Avho says that the wife of Boaz died on the
day when Ruth entered Palestine (B. B. 91a). Po-
lygamy was, however, sanctioned by Jewish law and
gave rise to many rabbinical discussions. While
one rabbi says that a man may take as many wives
as he can support (Raba, in Y'eb. 65a), it was recom-
mended that no one should marry more than four
women (ib. 44a). R. Ami was of the opinion that a
woman had a right to claim a bill of divorce if her
husband took another wife (ib. 65a). The institu-
tion of the Ketubah, which was introduced by the
Rabbis, still further discouraged polygamy ; and
subsequent enactments of the Geonim (see Mviller's
"Mafteah," p. 282, Berlin, 1891) tended to restrict
this usage.

An express prohibition against polygamy was
pronounced by R. Gershom b. Judah, "the Light of

"the Exile " (960-1028), which was soon

Rabbi accepted in all the communities of

Gershom's northern France and of Germany. The

Decree. Jews of Spain and of Italy as well as

those of the Orient continued to prac-
tise polygamy for a long period after that time, al-
though the influence of the prohibition was felt even
in those countries. Some authorities suggested that
R. Gershom's decree was to be enforced for a time
only, namely, up to 5000 a.m. (1240 c.e. ; Joseph
Colon, Responsa, Xo. 101; see Shulhan 'Aruk, Eben
ha-'Ezer, i. 10, Isserles' gloss), probably believing
that the Messiah would appear before that time ; but
this opinion was overruled by that of the majority
of medieval Jewish rabbis. Even in the Orient mon-
ogamy soon became the rule and polygamy the ex-
ception ; for only the wealthy could afford the lux-
ury of many wives. In Africa, where Mohammedan
influence w^as strongest, the custom was to include

in the marriage contract the following paragraph:
"The said bridegroom . . . hereby proniiws that
he will not take a second wife during ;hc lifetime
of the said bride . . . except with her consent; and,
if he transgres.ses this oath and t / .1 wife

during the lifetime of the saiil bri. iit her

consent, he shall give her every tittle of what is
written in the marriage settlement, r ' r with
all the voluntary additions Jicrtin d- javiug

all to her up to the last farthing, and he shall free
her by regular divorce instantly and with fitting
solemnity." This condition was rigidly enforced
by the rabbinic authorities (see Abrahams, "Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages," p. 120).

The Jews of Spain practised polygamy as late

as the fourteenth century. The only requirement

there was a special permit, for which a certain sum

was probably paid into the king's

Later treasury each time a Jew took an

Instances, additional wife (Jacobs, "Sources." p.
XXV., No. 104, London, 1894;. Such
cases, however, were rare exceptions. The Span-
ish Jews, as well as their brethren in Italy and in
the Orient, soon gave up these practises; and to-
day, although the Jews of the East live under Mo-
hanmiedan rule, but few cases of polygamy are
found among them.

In some exceptional cases bigamy was -.-d

(see Bigamy) ; but this was in very rare < ly,

and the consent of 100 learned men of three dif-
ferent states was required (see Insanity). While
in the case of the 'Agunah one witness who tes-
tifies to the death of her husband is sufficient to
permit the woman to remarry, in the case of the
woman's disappearance some authorities ("Bet
Shemuel" on Eben ha-*Ezer, 158, 1; 15, 20) are of
the opinion that the testimony of one witness is not
sufficient to permit the husband to remarry (see
Fassel, "Mishpete El; Das Mosaisch-Rabbinische
Civilrecht," §§ 63, 112, Xagy-Kanizsa, 1852). Later
authorities, however, permit him to remarry even
when there is only one witness to testify to the
death of his wife, and even when that witness did
not know her personally, providing that after he had
described the deceased woman the husband recog-
nized the description as that of his wife (" Noda'
Bihudah," series ii., Eben ha-'Ezer, 7, 8; comp.
"Hatam Sofer" on Eben ha-'Ezer, responsum 2;
"Pithe Teshubah" on Eben ha-'Ezer. 1, 10).

In spite of the prohibition against polygamy and

of the general acceptance thereof, the Jewish law

still retains many provisions which apply only

to a state which permits polygamy.

Survivals The marriage of a married man is
of legally valid and needs the formality

Polygamy, of a bill of divorce for its dissolution,
while the marriage of a married woman
is void and has no binding force (El)en ha Ezir, 1.
10; comp. "Pithe Teshubah," § 20, where is quoted
the opinion of some authorities that after a man takes
a second wife he is not compelled to divorce hcrV
The Reform rabbis in conference assembled (Phila
delphia, 1869) decided that "then ' " ir-

ried man to a second woman can ; .> e

nor claim religious validity, just as little as the
marriage of a married woman to another man, but.

Polyglot Bible
Poniewicz

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

122

like this, is null and void from the beginning." Still,
with the majority of Jews, this is not even an open
question, and the marriage of a married man is con-
sidered just as valid as that of an unmarried man;
it not only requires the formality of divorce in the
case of separation, but also makes him subject to the
laws of relationship; so that he can not afterward
marry the wife's sister while the wife is living, nor
can he or his near relatives, according to the laws
of consanguinity, enter into matrimonial relations
•with any of her near relatives (see Makuiage).

Bibliography: Hastings. Dic(. Bible, s.v. Marriage: Ham-
burger, R. B. T., s.v. Vielweiherei; Frankel, Grundlitiien
des Mosaixch-Talmudiselun Eherechts. Breslau. 18tiU; Lkh-
tenstein. Die Ehe nach Mo!<ai.'ich-Talmudi,'icher Atiffassuitu,
lb. 1879; Klugman, Stellung dcr Frau im TaUimd, Vienna,
1898; Rabbinowicz, Meho ha-Talmitd, Hebr. transl., p. 80,
Wilna,18iH; Buchholz, Z>i« Faun! if, Breslau, 1867; Mielziner,
Tlie Jeiciifh Law of Marriage iind Divorce, Cincinnati, 1884 ;
Duscbak, Das Mosaisch-Talinudische Eherecht, Vienna,
18W.
E. c. J. H. G.

POLYGLOT BIBLE. See Bible Editions.

POMEGRANATE (pDI : Punica Granatum):
A tree of the myrtle family. The pomegranate was
carried into Egypt in very early historic times
(comp. Num. xx. 5), and was also cultivated in Pal-
estine, Assyria, and most of the countries bordering
the Mediterranean. The spies brought pomegran-
ates, grapes, and figs as signs of the fertility of
Canaan (ib. xiii. 23). Several Biblical passages in-
dicate that the pomegranate was among the com-
mon fruit-trees of the country (Deut. viii. 8; Joel i.
12; Hag. ii. 19). A famous pomegranate-tree grew
at Gibeah in the time of Saul (I Sam. xiv. 2). Pome-
granate-groves, as well as the beautiful tlowerof the
tree, are mentioned in the Song of Solomon ; and the
fruit furnishes similes (Cant. iv. 3, 13; vi. 7, 11; vii.
13). The pomegranate was used in art. The two
pillars, Jachin and Boaz, were ornamented with a
representation of it (I Kings vii. 18); and pomegran-
ates were embroidered on the garment of the high
priest (Ex. xxviii. 33).

Throughout the East the pomegranate is the sym-
bol of luxuriant fertility and of life. Pomegranates
are eaten raw, their acid juice being most refreshing
(comp. Cant. iv. 3). They are also dried (comp.
Ma'as. i. 6). The juice mixed with water is to-day
a favorite drink in the East; in former times it was
also prepared as a kind of wine (Cant. viii. 2; Pliny,
"Hist. Naturalis," xiv. 19).

E. Q. H. I. Be.

POMIS, DE (D'nisnn p) : An old Italian Jew-
ish family which claimed descent from King David.
According to a legend, reproduced by De Pomis in
the introduction to his lexicon "Zemah Dawid," the
Pomeria family was one of the four families brought
from Jerusalem to Rome by Titus. The family is a'
most important one, being related to that of Anaw.
Members of the family are said to have lived in Rome
until about 1100, when they emigrated, scattering
through Italy. Most of them settled at Spoleto in
Umbria, where, according to the account of David
de Pomis, they and their descendants remained for
420 years; but when Central Italy was sacked by
the army of Charles V. of Spain in 1527, the family
fell into the hands of the enemy and lost its entire
property. In the introduction to his dictionary

David de Pomis incorporates his autobiography, and
traces his genealogy back to the martyr Elijah de
Pomis, as follows: David (b. 1525), Isaac, Eleazar,
Isaac, Abraham, Menahem, Isaac, Obadiah, Isaac,
and Elijah. This would set the date of Elijah at
approximately 1270, which is historically correct.
As the last-named lived at Rome, however, the
statement that the family left that city about 1100
can not be correct. Moreover, members of the
family did not live 420 years, but only 220 years,
at Spoleto.

Bibliography: David de Pomis, ?<'mo?iDawid,Introductlon;
Nepi-(ihirondi, Toledot Gedole I'isrocf, p. 84; Vogelstein
and Rieger, Gesch. dcr Juden in Rom, i. 257.

G. I. E.

David ben Isaac de Pomis : Italian physician
and philosopher; born at Spoleto, Umbria, in 1525;
died after 1593. When David was born his father
was rich ; but soon after, he lost his fortune in the
following manner: When the Imperialists plundered
Rome, Isaac, fearing that they would attack Spo-
leto, sent all his possessions to Camerino and Civita.
The troops of Colonna surprised the convoy on its
way, and confiscated all of Isaac's goods. He then
settled at Bevegna, where David received his early
education. In 1532 Isaac de Pomis settled at Todi
and confided the instruction of his son to his uncles
Jehiel Alatino and Moses Alatino, who taught
the boy the rudiments of medicine and philos-
ophy.

David was graduated, Nov. 27, 1551, as " Artium
et Medicinaj Doctor " at the University of Perugia.
Later he settled at Magliano, where he practised
medicine, holding at the same time the position of
rabbi. The anti-Jewish laws enacted by Paul IV.
deprived David of his possessions and likewise of
his rabbinate; and he entered the service of Count
Nicolo Orsini, and five years later that of the Sforza
family.

The condition of the Jews of the Pontifical States
having improved on the accession of Pius IV., David
went to Rome, and, as the result of a Latin dis-
course delivered before the pope and cardinals, ob-
tained permission to settle at Chiusi and to practise
his profession among Christians. Unfortunately,
Pius IV. died seven days later, and the permission
was annulled by Pius V. David then went to
Venice, where a new permission was granted to him
by Pope Sixtus V.

De Pomis was the author of the following works:
(1) "Zemah Dawid," a Hebrew and Aramaic dic-
tionary dedicated to Pope Sixtus V., the words
being explained in Latin and Italian. Venice, 1587.
This dictionary, variously estimated by the lexicolo-
gists (comp. Richard Simon in the appendix to
" De Ceremoniis Judteorum " ; David de Lara in the
introduction to " 'Ir Dawid "), was modeled after
Jehiel's lexicographical work, '"Aruk." (2) "Ko-
helet," the Book of Ecclesiastes translated into Ital-
ian, with explanatory notes, ib. 1571, dedicated to
Cardinal Griinani. (3) •'Discorsolntornoall' Umana
]\Iisena, c Sopra il Modo di Fuggirla," published as
an appendix to "Kohelet," ib. 1572, and dedicated
to Duchess Margarete of Savoy (David also trans-
lated the books of Job and Daniel ; but these were
never published). (4) "Brevi Discorsi et Eficacis-

123

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Polyglot Bible
Poniewicz

simi liicordi per Liberaie O^^ui Citti Oppressa dal
Mai Contagioso," ib. 1577. (5) "Euarratio Brevis de
Senum Allectibus Pra*caveudis Atque Curaudis"
dedicated to tlie doge aud senate of Venice, ib. 1588.
(6) A work on the divine character of the Venetian
republic, which he cites in Ins "Enarratio Brevis,"
but which has not been preserved. (7) " De Medico
Hebra;o Enarratio Apoiogica," ib. 1588. Thisapolo-
getical work, which defends not only Jewi.sh phy-
sicians, but Jews in general (see some extracts trans-
lated in Winter and Wiinsche, "Die Jiidische
Litteratur," iii. 698 et seq.), earned much praise from
Roman patricians, such as Aldus Manutius the
Younger, whose letter of commendation is prefixed
to the book.

BiBLiocJRAPHY : Wolf, Bihl. Hehr. 1. 311-313; Jost, Annalen,
1839. p. ~£i ; Griitz. Gescli.ix. 504 ; II ViasilU) Israeliticii, 1875,
p. 175; 1876, p. 319; Berliner's Magazin, 187.5, p. 48; Steln-
schnelder, Jeivish Literature, p. 335; idem, in Monats-
schrift, xllli. 32; Dukes, in R.E.J. I. 14.5-152; Vo(?elstein
and Hieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, 11.259-260; Carmoly,
Histoire des Medecins Juifs, 1. 150-153.
Q. I. Br.

Elijah de Pomis : Rabbi and director of the
community of Rome; died as a martyr Tammuz 20,
5058 (= July 1, 1398). When the Roman commu-
nity was assailed under Boniface VIII., Elijah was
the first to be seized. To save his coreligionists he
pleaded guilty to all the charges brought against
him, and was sentenced to trial by fire and water,
perishing in the former, whereupon the confiscation
of his property, the principal object of the trial, was
carried out. Two anon^'mous elegies were com-
posed on his death.

BiBLiORRAPHY : Kobe^ 'al Yad, iv. 30 et seq.; Berliner, Qesch.
der Juden in Rom, 11. 57 ; Vogelsteln and Rieger, Gesch.
der Juden in Rom, i. 257.

Moses de Porais and Vitale de Pomis were

known under the name Alatino.

G. I. E.

POMPEY THE GREAT (Latin, Cneius
Pompeius Magnus) : Roman general who sub-
jected Judea to Rome. In the year 65 B.C., diiring
his victorious campaign through Asia Minor, he sent
to Syria his legate Scaurus, who was soon obliged
to interfere in the quarrels of the two brothers
Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. When Pompey
himself came to Syria, two years later, the rivals,
knowing that the Romans were as rapacious as they
were brave, hastened to send presents. Pompey
gradually approached Judea, however; and in the
spring of 63, at the Lebanon, he subdued the petty
rulers, including the Jew Silas (Josephus, "Ant.''
xiv. 3, ^ 2) and a certain Bacchius Judaeus, whose
subjugation is represented on a coin (Reinach, "Les
Monnaies Juives," p. 28). Pompey then came to
Damascus, where the claims of the three parties to
the strife were presented for his consideration — those
of Hyrcanus and Aristobulus in person, since the
haughty Roman thus exacted homage from the Ju-
dean princes, while a third claimant represented the
people, who desired not a ruler but a theocratic re-
public (Josephus, § 2; Diodorus, xl. 2). Pompey,
however, deferred his decision until he should have
subdued the Nabataeans.

The warlike Aristobulus, who suspected the de-
signs of the Romans, retired to the fortress of Alex-
ANDRiuM and resolved to offer armed resistance; but

at the demand of Pompey he surrendered the for-
tress and went to JerusaltMn. intending to continue
his opposition there (Josepims, "Ant." xiv. 3, ^4;
idem, " B. J." i. 0, $§ 4. 5). Pompey followed him
by way of Jericho, and as Aristobulus ajjuin deemed
it advisable to surrender to the Romans. Pompey
sent his legate Gabinius to take posHc-ssiou of the
city of Jerusalem.

This lieutenant found, however, lliut there were
other defenders there besides Aristobulus. where-
upon Pompey declared Ari-stobulus a prisoner aud
began to besiege the city. Although the parly
of Hyrcanus opened the gates to tlie Romans, tlie
Temple mount, which was garrisoned by the peo-
ple's party, liad to be taken i)y means of rams
brought from Tyre; and it was stormed only after a
siege of three months, anil then on a Sabbutli, .vhen
the Jews were not defending the walls. Josephus
calls the day of the fall of Jerusalem "the day of
the fast" {vriareiw: ij/tifja- "Ant." xiv. 4, ^ 8); but in
this he merely followed the phraseology of his Gen-
tile sources, which regarded the Sabbath as u fast-
day, according to the current Grero-Roman view.
Dio Cassius says(xxxvii. 16) correctly that it was
on a "Cronos day," this term likewi.se denoting the
Sabbath.

The capture of the Temple mount was accom-
panied by great slaughter. The priests wlio were
officiating despite the battle were massacred by the
Roman soldiers, and many committed suicide; while
12,000 people besides were killed. Pompey himself
entered the Temple, but he was so awed by its sanc-
tity that he left the treasure and the costly vessels
untouched ("Ant." xiv. 4, ^4; "B. J." i. 7. § 6;
Cicero, " Pro Flacco, " § 67). The leaders of the war
party were executed, and the city and country were
laid under tribute. A deadly blow was struck at
the Jews when Pompey separated from Judea the
coast cities from Rapiiia to Dora, as well as all the
Hellenic cities in the east-Jordan country, and the
so-called Decapolis, besides Scythopolis and Sa-
maria, all of which were incorporated in the new
province of Syria. These cities, without exception,
became autonomous, and dated their coins from the
era of their "liberation " by Pompey. The small
territory of Judea he assigned to Hyrcanus, with
the title of "ethnarch" ("Ant." i.e.; "B. J."/.«.:
comp. "Ant." xx. 10. §4). Aristobulus. together
with his two sons Alexander and Autigonus. and
his two daughters, was carried captive to Rome to
march in Pompey 's triumph, while many other Jew-
ish prisoners were taken to the same city, this cir-
cumstance probably having much to do with the
subsequent prosperity of the Roman community.
Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem is generally be-
lieved to form the historical background of the
Psalms of Solomon.

BiBLiooRAPHv: Moranisen. R/imiKChe Gefehirhf>: Mh r^.. UL
113-154: Griitz. Gesrh. 4tli ed.. 111. 157. 17:.' ■■■«.

3d ed.. 1. 294-;»l; Berliner. G>'<-h. rUr J\. a,

Frankfort-on-the-Main. I" '
niunlty of Rome was f-

fnll of Jerusalem merely nn i-ii.-M ii~ mi...'- .- . ■ .... •__- •
stein and Rieger, Gc«ch. der Juden in Rom, 1. a. Benin,
1896). „ „„

S. Kn.

PONIEWICZ (PONEVYEZH): P

in thegoverumculuf Kuvn.' lvi.--i:i. In

;ly
iUt

Poniewicz
Popes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

124

Nikolai Tyszkiewicz by cuttiug down a forest tliat
lay between New and Old Poniewicz helped mate-
rially in enlarging the city to its present size and
in founding the suburb Xikolayev. Poniewicz came
under Russian dominion after the last partition of
Poland, and it became a part of the government of
Kovno in 1842. More than half the population of
the city consists of Jews, and there is also a small Ka-
raite community. In 1865 the number of inhabit-
ants was 8,071, of whom 3,648 were Jews including
70 Karaites. By 1884 the population had increased
to 15.030, including 7,899 Jews, but in 1897 the total
population is given as 13,044. Poniewicz has one
synagogue built of brick and seven built of wood.
The Karaite community also maintains a synagogue.
Of other institutions in the city there are a govern-
ment school for Jewish boys, one for girls, a hospi-
tal (opened 1886), and a Talmud Torah. There are
in addition numerous other communal institutions
and societies.

R. Isaac b. Joseph (d. before 1841), whose name
is signed to an approbation in the " 'Ateret Rosh "
(Wilna, 1841), is one of the earliest known rabbis of

Poniewicz. R. Moses Isaac, of Libau,

B-abbis and Plungian, and Taurogen, was prob-

Scholars. ably his successor, and was himself

succeeded by R. Hillel Mileikovski or
Salanter. R. Elijah David Rabinovich-Te'omim
succeeded R. Hillel. He was born in Pikeln, gov-
ernment of Kovno, June 11, 1845, and now (1904) is
rabbi at Jerusalem. Rabinovich occupied the posi-
tion of rabbi of Poniewicz from 1873 to 1893, when
he went to Mir as the successor of R. Yom-Tob Lip-
man B0SL.\XSKI.

The poet Leon Gordon commenced his career as
a teacher in the government school of Poniewicz,
where he remained until 1860 and married the grand-
daughter of one of its former prominent citizens,
Tanhum Ahronstam (died Nov. 10, 1858; see "Ha-
Maggid," ii., No. 50, and Gordon's letters, Nos. 1-36).
Isaac Lipkin, son of R. Israel Lipkin (Salanter), was
also a resident in the city until his death. The ear-
liest known " maggid " or preacher of Poniewicz
■was Menahem Mendel, author of " Tamim Yahdaw "
(Wilna, 1808).

The district of Poniewicz, which contains twenty-
three small towns and villages, liad in 1865 7,410
Jews (including 351 Karaites), of whom 59 were agri-
culturists. In 1884 it had 34,066 Jews in a total
population of 200,687, and in 1897 43,600 Jews in a
total population of 210,458.

Bibliography: AlenUzln. StatMtiche^ki Vremennik, etc.,
series UK, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1884 ; Brockhaus-Efron. Ent-
ziklniiedicha<ki Slovar, s.v.; JUdisches Volkuhkitt, St. Te-
ter.sburg, 1886, No. 33; Semenov, Russian Geographical Dic-
tinnaru. s.v.; Elsenstadt, Dor Rabbanaw we-Soferaiv, 11.
29, 43, 52 ; iv. 21, 34.
It. K. P. Wl.

PONTE, LORENZO DA (JEREMIAH

CONEGLIANO): lUiliau-Aincrican man of letters,
composer, and teacher; born at Ceneda, Italy, 1749;
died 1837. He belonged to a well-known Jewish
family, which had produced the distinguished Ital-
ian-Turkish diplomatist Dr. Israel Conegliako.
With his parents and brothers. Da Ponte, for ma-
terial reasons, was baptized in his fourteenth year,
and the new name which he was destined to make

Lorenzo da Ponte.

famous was adopted in honor of a Catholic bishop
who was his protector.

At an early age he became professor of belles-
lettres at Treviso, later at Venice, and published va-
rious poems, including a political satire, which led to
his exile. Da Ponte went to Austria, where he soon
won the favor of the emperor Joseph II., was ap-
pointed "poet" to the imperial theaters in Vienna,
and in that capacity met Mozart. He composed for
the great musician the
libretti to his famous
operas " Mariage de
Figaro" and "Don
Juan," and became an
important figure in
court, literarj', and mu-
sical circles. On the
death of Joseph II. he
lost favor, and after
various vicissitudes, in-
cluding several years
of service as dramatist
and secretary to the
Italian Opera Company
in London, he emi-
grated to America
early in the nineteenth
century. Again un-
fortunate, he was compelled to earn a subsistence
by teaching Italian. He wrote various plays, son-
nets, and critical essays, made a translation of the
Psalms, and managed Italian operatic performances.
From 1826 until his death he was professor of the Ital-
ian language and literature at Columbia College. He
encouraged the study and developed the apprecia-
tion of Dante in America, and won consideiable
influence over many pupils. He became involved in
a controversy with Prescott, the historian, concern-
ing Italian literature, Prescott's rejoinder to him
being preserved in the historian's "Miscellaneous
and Critical Essaj's."

Da Ponte was instrumental in bringing the Garcia
Opera Company to the United States, the first to
play there. He himself became manager of a simi-
lar company in New York in 1833, by which an
opera composed by him at the age of eighty was
presented, his niece being introduced in it as the
prima donna. His best-known work is his ex-
tremely interesting "Memoirs," which Tuckerman
has compared to Franklin's autobiography, and
which appeared in various Italian editions, in a
French translation (1860), with an introduction by
Lamartine, and also in German form. A notice-
able revival of interest in Da Route's career, which
had been well-nigh forgotten, was called forth re-
cently by the publication in Italy, in 1900, of his
works, together with his biography, in an elaborate
edition of 500 pages, and of various popular essays
dealing with his career. His Jewish antecedents
were commented upon in various biographies, and
were emphasized by contemporaries for the purpose
of injuring his position. His "Memoirs" indicate
that even in his youth he was proficient in Hebrew,
and the impress of his ancestry and of his early
Jewish studies has been discerned by critics of his
works and views.

125

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Poniewioz
Popes

Bibliooraphy: Marchesan, Delia Vita e dclle Opera di Lo-
renzo da Polite, Trevlso, 1900; H. E. Krehblel, Music and
Manners: Henry Tiickerinan, in I'utuam'x ManazirteA^^i,
xll. 527 (reprinted In Dublin UtiivcrKitji Maoazinc, Ixxx.
215); JewiKh Comment, Aug. 9, 1900; see also Krehblel's re-
view of Prof. Marcliesan's work In the THbune, New York,
Sept. 9, 1900.
A. M. J. K.

PONTOISE : French town ; capital of an arron-
dissenicnt in the department of Seine-et-Oise. It
contained a Jewish community as early as the elev-
enth century. In 1179 (according to some authori-
ties, in 1166 or 1171) the Jews of Pontoise were ac-
cused of the murder of a Christian chiUl named
Richard, whose body was taken to the Church of the
Holy Innocents at Paris and tliere venerated as that
of a martyr. A document of 1294 relates that the
abbe of Saint Denis bought a house at Pontoise be-
longing to a Clirislian heavily indebted to the Jews
there, who were paid the purchase-money through
the provost Robert de Buan. The Jewish names
which appear in this document are those of Magis-
ter Sanson, Meuns de Sezana, and Abraliam de Novo
Castello. In 1296 Philip the Fair made a gift to his
brother Charles, Count of Valois, of Joce or Joucet,
a Jew of Pontoise, and his children, David, Aroin,
Haginot, Beleuce, Hanee, and Sarin. In the same
year Joucet of Pontoise was appointed financial
agent between the crown and his coreligionists of
Amiens, Senlis, and Champagne, and in 1297 Philip
the Fair made him arbiter in a litigation which had
arisen between himself and his brother Charles re-
garding forty-three Jews whom the latter claimed as
natives either of his county of Alen^on or of his
lands in Bonmoulinsand Chateauneuf-en-Thymerais.

The principal Jewish scholars of Pontoise were:
Jacob de Pontoise {"Minhat Yehudah," pp. 4b,
24b), Moses ben Abraham (Tosef., Pes. 67b; Hag.
19b; Yoma 6b, 64a; Yeb. 61a), and Abraham de
Pontoise ("Kol Bo." No. 103).

Bibliography: Depping, LesJuifsdans le Jfoj/en^ae, pp.
93, 146 ; Dom Bouquet, Histnriens de France, xxv. 768; Du-
bois, Histnria Kcclesice Par^isiensi,<!,ii. 142; MoT^ri, Dictinn-
naii-e Historique, s.v. Richard ; R. E. J. li. 34, ix. 63, xv.
234, 250 ; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 443-445.
G. S. K.

PONTREMOLI, BENJAMIN : Turkish rab-
binical writer; lived at Smyrna at the end of the
eighteenth century. He was tlie author of a work
entitled "Shebet Binyamin " (Salonica, 1824), on
drawing up commercial papers. He had two sons,
Hayyim Isaiah and Hiyya.

Bibliography: Kazan, Ha-Ma'alot li-Shelomoh, pp. 31, 9.5;
Franco, Histoire des Israelites de VEmpire Ottoman, p. 266.
8. M. Fr.

PONTREMOLI, ESDR.A : Italian rabbi, poet,
and educationist; born at Ivrea 1818; died in 1888;
son of Eliseo Pontremoli, rabbi of Nizza, where
a street was named after him. In 1844 Esdra Pon-
tremoli became professor of Hebrew in the Coilegio
Foa at Vercelli. He was for fifteen years associate
editor of "Educatoie Israelita." He translated Luz-
zatto's " Derek Erez " into verse under tlie title " II
Falso Progresso " (Padua, 1879).

Bibliography : II Vessillo Israditico, 1888.

PONTREMOLI, HIYYA : Turkish rabbinical

author ; died at Smyrna in 1832 ; son of Benjamin

Pontremoli. Hiyya Pontremoli wrote, among other
works, the "Zappihil bi-Debash," a collccliou of
responsa on Orah Huy yim.

Bibliography: Hazan, Ha-Ma'alot U-ShtUmoh.nn. 31 M-
Franco. IHMoire de* larailiUg de I'KmiHre (Mtumati, p.

^■' M. Fn.

POOR, RELIEF OF. See Ciiauitv.
POOR LAWS. See Charity.

POPES, THE: The Roman Church docs not
claim any jurisdiction over persons who have not
been baptized ; llioreforc tiie relations of tlie pope*,
as the heads of the Churcli. to the Jews have been
limited to rules regarding the political, commercial,
and social conditions under which Jews mij,'ht rcKide
in Christian states. As sovereigns of the Pajml States
the popes further had the right to legislate on the
status of their Jewish subjects. Finally, voluntary
action was occasionally taken by the popes on be-
half of the Jews who invoked their aid in times of
persecution, seeking their mediation as the ]iiirii«-8t
ecclesiastical authorities. Tlie general principles
governing the popes in their treatment

General of the Jews arc practically identical
Principles, with those laid down in the Justinian
Code : (1 ) to separate them from social
intercourse with Christians as far as possible; (2) to
prevent them from exercising any authority over
Christians, either in a public (as officials) or a pri-
vate capacity (as masters or employers); (3) to ar-
range that the exercise of the Jewish religion should
not assume the character of a public function. On
the other hand, however, the popes have always
condemned, theoretically at least, (1) acts of violence
against the Jews, and (2) forcible baptism.

The history of the relations between the popes
and the Jews begins with Gregory I. (590-604), who
may be called the first pope, inasmuch as his author-
ity was recognized by the whole Western Church.
The fact that from the invasion of the Lombards
(568) and the withdrawal of the Byzantine troops
the Roman population was without a visible hea<l of
government made the Bishop of Rome, the highest
ecclesiastical dignitary who happened to be at the
same time a Roman noble, the natural protector of
the Roman population, to which the Jews also be-
longed. Still, even before this time. Pope Gelasiua
is mentioned as having recommended a Jew, Tele-
sinus, to one of his relatives as a very reliable man,
and as having given a decision in the case of a
Jew against a slave who claimed to have been a
Christian and to have been circumcised by his mas-
ter against his will (Mansi, "Concilia," viii. 131;
Migne, "Patrologia Gra'co Latina," lix. 146; Vogel-
stein and Rieger, "Gesch. dcr Juden in Rom," I.
127-128). In the former instance the pope acted
merely as a private citizen: in the latter he was
most likely called upon as an ecclesiastiad expert to
give a decision in a local affair. The legend may
also be quoted which makes of the apostle Peter
an enthusiastic Jew who merely pretendetl zeal
for Christianitv in order to assist his persecuted
coreligionists (JelHnek, " B. II." v. 60-62, vi. 9-10;
Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 165-168; "Allg. Zeit.
des Jud." 1903).

Popes

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

126

Nevertheless, the liistory proper of the popes in

their relation to the Jews begins, as stiid above, with

Gresrorv I. He often protected the Jews against

violence and unjust treatment on the

Gregory part of officials, and condemned forced
the Great, baptism, but he advised at the same
time the winning of the Jews over to
Christianity by offering material advantages. Very
often he condemned the holding of Christian slaves
by Jews(Gratz, "Gesch." v. 43; Vogelsteiu and Ric-
ger, I.e. i. 132-135). A very obscure order is contained
in a letter of Pope Nicholas I. to Bishop Arsenius of
Orta, to whom he prohibits the use of Jewish gar-
ments. Leo VII. answered the Archbishop of Ma-
yence, who asked whether it was right to force the
Jews to accept baptism, that he might give them
the alternative of accepting Christianity or of emi-
grating (Aronius, "Regesten"; comp. Vogelsteiu
and Rieger, I.e. i. 139). An.\cletus II. (antipope),
whose claim to the papal throne was always con-
tested, was of Jewish descent, and this fact was used
by liis opponents in their attacks upon him. Bene-
dict VIll. had a number of Jews put to death on
the ground of an alleged blasphemy against Jesus
which was supposed to have been the cause of a de-
structive cyclone and earthquake (c. 1020; Vogel-
steiu and Rieger, I.e. i. 213).

In the bitter tight between Gregory VII. and the
German emperor Henry lY. the pope charged the
emperor with favoritism to the Jews, and at a synod
held at Rome in 1078 he renewed the canonical laws
Avhich prohibited giving Jews power over Chris-
tians; tins necessarily meant that Jews might not be
employed as ta.x-farmers or mint-masters. Calixtus
II. (1119-24) issued a bull in which he strongly con-
demned forced baptism, acts of violence against the
lives and the property of the Jews, and the desecra-
tion of their sj^nagogues and cemeteries {c. 1120).
In spite of the strict canonical prohibition against
the employment of Jews in public capacities, some
popes engaged their services as financiers and phy-
sicians. Thus Pope Alexander III. employed Jehiel,
a descendant of Nathan ben Jehiel, as his secretary
of treasury (Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 225).

The extreme in the hostile enactments of the
popes against the Jews was reached under Inno-
cent III. (1198-1216), w'ho was the most powerful
of the medieval popes, and who convened the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215); this

Innocent council renewed the old canonical pro-
Ill, hibitions against trusting the Jews
with public offices and introduced the
law demanding that Jews should wear a distinctive
sign on their garments (see Badge). The theolog-
ical principle of the pope was that the Jews should, as
though so many Cains, be held up as warning exam-
ples to Christians. Nevertheless he protected them
against the fury of the French Crusaders (Gratz,
I.e. vii. 5; Vogelstein and Rieger, I.e. i. 228-230).
Gregory IX., who in various official documents in-
sisted on the strict execution of the canonical laws
against the .lews, was humane enougii to issue the
bull "Etsi Juda^orum" (1233; repeated in 1235), in
which he demanded that the Jews in Christian coun-
tries should be treated with the same humanity as that
with which Christians desire to be treated in heathen

lands. His successor. Innocent IV. , ordered the burn-
ing of the Talmud in Paris (1244); but Jewish his-
tory preserves a grateful memory of him on account
of his bull declaring the Jews innocent of the charge
of using Christian blood for ritual purposes (see
Blood Accus.vtion). This bull was evidently the
result of the affair of Fulda (1238), concerning which
Emperor Frederick II. also issued a warning. The
defense of the Jews against the same charge was
undertaken by Gregory X., in his bull "Sicut Ju-
d!ieis" (Oct. 7,"l272; Stern, "Urkundliche Beitrftge,"
i.5).

The relations of the popes to the Jews in the sub-
sequent two centuries present a rather monotonous
aspect. They issued occasional warnings against vio-
lence, threatened the princes who allowed the Jews
to disregard the canonical laws concerning badges or
concerning the employment of Christian servants,
but conferred minor favors on certain Jews. As a
typical instance, it may be noted that Boniface VIII.,
when the Jews did him homage, insulted them by
returning behind his back the copy of the Torah
presented to him, after making tiie oft-repeated
remark about reverence for the Law but condemna-
tion of its misrepresentation.

The excitement of the Church during the Hussite
movement rendered the Jews apprehensive, and
through Emperor Sigismund, who was heavily in-
debted to them, thej' obtained from Pope Martin V.
(1417-31 ; elected by the Council of Constance after
the Great Schism) various bulls (1418 and 1422) in
which their former privileges were contirmed and in
which he exhorted the friars to use moderate lan-
guage. In the last years of his pon-
Martin V. tificate, however, he repealed several
of his ordinances, charging that they
had been obtained under false pretenses (Stern, I.e.
i. 21-43). Eugene IV. and Nicholas V. returned to
the policy of moderation, especially in advising the
friars against inciting mobs to acts of violence.
Sixtus IV., while sanctioning the Spanish Inquisi-
tion, repeatedly endeavored (1482 and 1483) to check
its fanatic zeal and prohibited the worship of the
child Simon of Trent, whom the Jew's of Trent were
falsely accused of having murdered (1474). He also
employed several Jews as his physicians.

Alexander VI. (Borgia), known in history as the
most profligate of all the popes, was rather favor-
ably inclined toward the Jews. It is especially note-
worthy that he allowed the exiles from Spain to set-
tle in his states, and that he fined the Jewish com-
munity of Rome for its objection to the settlement in
its midst of these unfortunates. Occasionally, how-
ever, he ordered the imprisonment of Maranos; and
on the whole it seems that the pope's leniency was
prompted by his greed. Leo X. also, the humanist
on the throne of St. Peter, was in general favorably
inclined toward the Jews, whom he employed not
only as physicians, but also as artists and in other
positions at his court. The beginning of the Ref-
ormation influenced his action in the controversy
between Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn, which he
settled in such a way as not to give any encourage-
ment to those who demanded reforms in the Church.

Clement VII. (1523-34) is known in Jewish history
for the interest which he took in the case of the Mes-

127

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Popes

sianic pretender David Keubeni, and for the protec-
tion which he granted to Solomon Molko, who, as
an apostate, had forfeited his life to the Inquisi-
tion. He also issued an order to protect the Maranos
in Portugal against the Inquisition (1533 and 1534).

Tlie Reformation and the consequent strictness in
enforcing the censorship of books reacted on tiie
condition of the Jews in so far as con-
The Ref- verts from Judaism eagerly displayed
ormation. their zeal for tlieir new faith by de-
nouncing rabbinical literature, and es-
pecially the Talmud, as hostile to Christianity. Con-
sequently Pope Julius III. issued an edict which
demanded the burning of the Talmud (1553) and
prohibited the printing of it by Christians. In
Kome a great many copies were publicly burned
(Sept. 9, 1553). The worst was yet to come. Paul
IV. (1555-59), in his bull "Cum nimis absurdum "
(July 12, 1555), not only renewed all canonical re-
strictions against the Jews— as those prohibiting
their practising medicine among Christians, em-
ploying Christian servants, and the like — but he
also restricted them in their commercial activity,
forbade them to have more than one synagogue in
any city, enforced the wearing of the yellow hat,
refused to permit a Jew to be addressed as "signor,"
and finally decreed that they should live in a ghetto.
The last measure was carried out in Rome witli un-
relenting cruelty.

After a short period of respite under Paul IV. 's
successor, Pius IV. (1559-66), who introduced some
alleviations in his predecessor's legal enactments,
Pius V. (1566-72) repealed all the concessions of his
predecessor, and not only renewed the laws of Paul
IV., but added some new restrictions, as the pro-
hibition to serve Jews by kindling their fires on the
Sabbath; he excluded them from a

Pius V. great number of commercial pursuits,
and went so far in his display of
hatred that he would not permit them to do homage,
although that ceremony was rather a humiliation
than a distinction (1566). Three years later (Feb.
26, 1569) the pope decreed the expulsion of the Jews
from his territory within three months from the date
of the promulgation of the edict, and while the
Jews of Rome and Ancona were permitted to re-
main, those of the other cities wpre expelled. They
were permitted to return by the next pope, Gregory
XIII. (1572-85), who, while he showed an occasional
leniency, introduced a large number of severe re-
strictions. Thus, the Jews were prohibited from
driving through the streets of the city, and they
were obliged to send every week at least 150 of their
number to listen to the sermons of a conversion-
ist preacher (1584). The terrible custom of keep-
ing Jews in prison for a certain time each year, and
of fattening them and forcing them, for the amuse-
ment of the mob, to race during the carnival, when
mud was thrown at them, is mentioned (1574) as
"an old custom " for the first time during Gregory's
pontificate.

Sixtus V. (1585-90), again, was more favorable to
the Jews. Aside from some measures of relief in
individual instances, he allowed the printing of the
Talmud after it had been subjected to censorship
(1586). The policy of succeeding popes continued

to vary. Clement Vlll. (15*.ni-l604) again issued an
edict of expul.sion (1593), whicJi was subsequently
repealed, and in the same year prohiljiicd tlie print-
ing of the Talmud. Under Clement X. (1670-76)
a papal order suspended the Inquisition in Portu-
gal (1674); but an attempt to interest the pope in
the lot of the Jews of Vienna, who were expelled
in 1670, failed. The worst feature of llie numer-
ous disabilities of the Jews under pupal domin-
ion was the closing of the gates of the Roman
ghetto during the night. Severe penalties awaited
a Jew leaving the ghetto after dark, or a Christian
entering it.

Pius VI. (1775-1800) issued an edict which re-
newed all the restrictions enacted from the thirteenth
century. The ci'nsorshipof b<>.
Pius VI. strictly enforced ; Jews were i ,

uiitted any tombstones in their grave-
yards; they were forbidden to remodel or eidarge
their synagogues; Jews might not have any inter-
course with converts to Christianity ; they were re-
quired to wear the yellow badge on their liat.s both
within and without the ghetto; they were not per-
mitted to have shops outside the ghetto, or engage
Christian nurses for their infants; thej' might not
drive through the city of Rome; and their attend-
ance at conversionist sermons was enforced. When
under Pius VI. 's successors the pressure of other
matters caused the authorities to become negligent
in the fulfilment of their duties, these rules were
often reenforced with extreme rigor; such was the
case under Leo XII. (1826).

Pius IX. (1846-78), during the first two years of
his pontificate, was evidently inclined to adopt a
liberal attitude, but after his return from exile he
adopted with regard to the Jews the same policy
as he pursued in general. * He condemned as abom-
inable laws all measures which gave political free-
dom to them, and in the case of the abduction of
the child Moutara (1858), whom a servant-girl
pretended to have baptized, as well as in the sim-
ilar case of the boy Fortunato Col>n (1864). showed
his approval of the medieval laws as enacted by
Innocent III. He maintained the ghetto in Rome
until it was abolished by the Italian occupation of
Rome (1870).

His successor, Leo XIII. (1878-1908). was the first
pope who exercised no territorial jurisdiction over
the Jews. His influence, ueverthele.<;s, was preju-
dicial to them. He encouraged anti-Semitism by
bestowing distinctions on leading anti-Semitic poli-
ticians and autliors, as Lueger and Drumont; lie re-
fused to interfere in behalf of Captain Drkyfcs or
to issue a statement against the blood accusation.
In an official document he denoiiuccd Jews, free-
masons, and anarchists as the enemies of the Church.

Pius X. (elected 1908) is not sufficiently known to
permit a judgment in regard to his attitude toward
the Jews. He received Hkuzl and some other Jews
in audience, but in his diocese of Mantua, before he
became pope, he had prohibited the celebration of a
solemn mass on the king's birthday because •
council which asked for it had attended n
tion in the synagogue.

BiBLiOGRAPnY: Berliner, Gcsch. dcr Jtideu in Rom. Frank-
forUm-the-Maln. 1893; Vogelstein and n r .u^h. dcr

Popes
Popper

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

128

Judcn in Rom, Berlin, 1895: Stern. Urkundliche Beitriliie
ilber die Stelhing tier Pii^)ft(^ zu dtn Juden. Kiel, 1893-95 ;
Pastor, Ocsch.derPdpste ; Mansl, Concilia, Bidlarium Mag-
num.

The following is a partial account of the more im-
portant bulls issued by popes with reference to the
Jews up to the middle of the eighteenth century :

1120. Calixtus II. Issues bull beginning "Slcut Judaels non " and
enumerating privileges of the Jews (Vogelsteln and
Rieger, "Gesch. der Judea in Rom," 1.219 [hereafter
cited as V. R.]).

1145. Eugenius III., ordering Jews to remit Interest on debts of
Crusaders while absent (Baronius, " Annates ").

1191. Clement III. conllrms the bull "Sicut Judaeis non " (Rlos,
" Hist." ii. 469 [hereafter cited as Rios]).

1199 (Sept. 15). Innocent III. confirms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1207 (Jan.). Innocent III., ordering Jews of Spain to pay tithes
on possessions obtained from Christians (Rios, i. 36C).

1216 (Nov. 6). Honorius III. in favor of German Jews, conflrm-
ing the "Sicut Judaeis non" of Clement 111. (V. R.
1.9).

1219. Honorius III., permitting the King of Castile to suspend
the wearing of the badge (Aronlus, "Regesten," i.362).

1228 (Oct. 21). Gregory IX., remitting interest on Crusaders'
debts to Jews and granting a " moratorium " for repay-
ment (V. R. i. 233).

1233 (April 6). Gregory IX. issues the bull " Etsl Judaeorum,"

demanding same treatment for Jews in Christian lands
as Christians receive in heathen lands (V. U. i. 234).
1333. Gregory IX., in bull " Sufflcere debuerat," forbids Chris-
tians to dispute on matters of faith with Jews (" Bulla-
rium Romanum," iii. 479).

1234 (June 5). Gregory IX. to Thibaut of Navarre, enforcing

the badge (Jacobs. "Sources," Nos. 1227, 1388).
1235. Gregory IX. conflrms " Sicut Judaeis non."
1239 (June 20). Gregory IX., confiscating all copies of Talmud

(V. R. 1.237).
1240. Gregory IX., ordering all Jewish books in Castile to be

seized on first Saturday in Lent while Jews were in

synagogue (Rios, i. 363).
1244 (Man-h 9). Bull " Impia pens" of Innocent IV., ordering

Talmud to be burned (Zunz, " S. P." p. 30).

1246 (Oct. 21). Innocent IV. confirms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1247 (May 28). Innocent IV. issues the " Divina justitia nequa-

quam," against blood accusation.

1247 (July 5). Innocent IV. issues the " Lacrymabilem Judaeo-
rum Alemania;." against blood accusation (Baronius,
"Annates," 1247, No. 84 ; Stobbe, "Die Juden in
Deutschland," p. 185; Aronius, " Regesten," No. 243).

1250 (April 15). Innocent IV., refusing permission to Jews of
Cordova to build a new synagogue (Aronius, "Regesten,"
p. 369) .

1253 (July 23) . Innocent IV., expelling Jews from Vlenne (Ray-
naldus, "Annales"; V. R. i. 239).

1253 (Sept. 25). Innocent IV. conflrms " Sicut Judaeis non."

1267 (July 28) . Clement IV. issues the " Turbato corde " calling
upon Inquisition to deal not only with renegades, but
also with the Jews who seduce them from the faith
("Bullarium Romanum," Iii. 786; V. R. i. 243;.

1272. Gregory X. conflrms the " Sicut Judaeis nou " (V. R. 1. 24.5,
with edition of a denial of blood accusation; Stem,
" Urkundliche Beitrage Qber die Stellung der Papste zu
den Juden," p. 5).

1272 (July 7). Gregory X., against blood accusation (Scherer,
" Rechtsverhaitnisse der Juden." p. 431).

1274. Gregory X. conflrms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1278 (Aug. 4). Nicholas III. issues the " Vlneam .sorce," order-
ing conversion sermons to Jews ("Bullarium Roma-
num," Iv. 45).

1386 (Nov. 30). Bull of Honorius IV. to Archbishop of York
and of Canterbury, against Talmud (Raynaldus, "An-
nales"; Scherer, " Rechtaverhaitnlsse," p. 48).

1291 (Jan. 30). Nicholas IV. Lssues the "Drat mater ecclesla"
to protect the IU>man Jews from oppression (Theiner,
" Codex Dlplomaticus," 1. 315; V. R. i. 252).

1299 (June 13). Boniface VIII. issues bull "Exhlblta nobis,"
declaring Jews to be Included among powerful persons
who might be denounced to the Inquisition without the
name of the accuser being revealed (V. II. I. 251).

1317. John XXII. orders Jews to wear badge on breast, and issues
bull against ex-Jews (Zunz, "S. P." p. 37).

1330 (June 28). John XXII., ordering that converts shall retain
their property ("Bullarium Romanum," III., ii. 181;
Ersch and Gruber, " Encyc." section ii., part 27, p. 149;
V. R. 1.305).

1320 (Sept. 4). JohnXXII. Issues to French bishops bull against
Talmud.

1337 (Aug. 29). Benedict XII. issues the bull " E.x zelo fldel."
promising inquiry into hosi-tragedy of Pulka (Raynal-
dus, "Annales" ; Scherer, "Rechtsverh!iltni.sse,"p. 368).

1345 (July 5). Clement VI., against forcible baptism.

1348 (July 4). Clement VI. confirms "Sicut Juda'is non."

1348 (Sept. 26). Clement VI., ordering that Jews be not forced
into baptism; that their Sabbaths, festivals, synagogues,
and cemeteries be respected ; that no new exactions be Im-
posed (Aronius, "Regesten," ii.200; V. R. i.313; Raynal-
dus, " Annales," 1348. No. ^3 ; Gratz, " Gesch." viii. 351).

1365 (July 7). Urban V. conflrms "Sicut Juda;is non."

1*<9 (July 2). Boniface IX. confirms "Sicut Judteis non."

1390 (July 17). John of Portugal orders bull of Boniface IX. of
July 2, l']S9, to be published in all Portuguese towns
(Kayserling, " Gesch. der Juden in Portugal," p. 39).

1397 (April 6). Boniface IX. confirms by bull grant of Roman
citizenship to the Jewish physician Manuele and his son
Angelo (V. R. i. 317).

1402 (April 15). Boniface IX., granting special privileges to
Roman Jews— reducing their taxes, ordering their
Sabbath to be protected, placing them under the juris-
diction of the Curia, protecting them from oppression
by olllcials ; all Jews and Jewesses dwelling in the city
to be regarded and treated as Roman citizens (V. R. 1.
318-319).

1415 (May 11). Benedict XIII., "Etsi doctoribus gentium,"
against Talmud or any other Jewish book attacking
Christianity (Rios, 11.626-653; see years 1434 and 1442,
below).

1417. Bull against Talmud (Jost. "Gesch. der Israeliten,"vii. 60).

1418 (Jan. 3i). Martin V., forbidding the forcible baptism of
Jews or the disturbance of their synagogues (Ray-
naldus, " Annales" ; V. R. i. 4).

1420 (Nov. 25). Martin V. issues to German Jews bull "Con-
cessum Judaeis," confirming their privileges (V. R. i. 5).
No .lew under twelve to be baptized without his own and
his parents' consent (Scherer, " Rechtsverhaitnisse," p.
414).

1420 (Dec. 23). Martin V. issues "Licet Judaeorum omnium,"

in favor of Austrian Jews.

1421 (Feb. 23). Martin V., in favor of Jews and against anti-

Jewish sermons ; permits Jewish physicians to practise
(V. R. 1. 5).

1422 (Feb. 20), Martin V. conflrms "Sicut Judaeis non."

1423 (June 3). Martin V. issues bull "Sedes apostolica," re-

newing the law regarding badge (V. R. i. 8).

1426 (Feb. 14). Martin V. issues bull against Jews (Zunz, "S.
P." p. 48).

1429 (Feb. 15). Martin V. issues the" QuamquamJudael," which
places Roman Jews under the general civic law, protects
them from forcible baptism, and permits them to teach
in the school (Rodocachl, " II Ghetto Romano," p.
147; V. R. 1.8).

1432 (Feb. 8). Eugenius IV. Issues a bull of protection for Jews,
renewing ordinances against forcible baptism and dis-
turbance of synagogues and graveyards (V. R. i. 10).

1434 (Feb. 20). Eugenius IV., prohibiting anti-Jewish sermons
(V. R. i. 11).

1442. Bull of Benedict XIII. published at Toledo (Rlos, ill. 44).

1442 (Aug. 8). Eugenius IV. issues a bull against Talmud (shortly
after withdrawn; Zunz, "S. P." p. 49). The Jews
were ordered to confine their reading of Scripture to the
Pentateuch ; handwork was forbidden to them ; no
Jews were permitted to be judges (Rieger, 11).

1447 (Nov. 2). Nicholas V. confirms "Sicut Judajis non."

1451 (Feb. 25). Bull of Nicholas V. prohibiting social inter-
course with Jews and Saracens (" Vita Nlcolai," v. 91 ;
V. R. i. 496).

1451 (May 28). Bull of Nicholas V., similar to that of Aug. 8,
1442, to extend to Spain and Italy ; the proceeds to be
devoted to the Turkish war (V. R. i. 16).

14.51 (Sept. ai). Nichola,s V. issues the "Romanus pontifex," re-
lieving the dukes of Austria from ecclesiastical censure
for permitting Jews to dwell there (Scherer, " Rechts-
verhaitnisse," pp. 423-425).

1472 (Feb. 21). SIxtus IV., ordering taxation of Roman Jews at
a tithe during the Turkish war, a twentieth otherwise
(compounded for 1,000 gulden in 1488) , and a carnival
tax of 1,100 gulden (V. R. 1. 126),

129

THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA

Popes
Popper

1481 (April 3). Slxtua IV., ordering all Christian princes to

restore all fuRltlves to Inquisition of Spain (Rlos, 111.

379; V. R. 1.21).
1481 (Oct. 17). Bull of Slxtus IV. appointing Tomasde Torque-

mada Inquisitor -general of Avignon, Valencia, and

Catalonia (Rlos, ill. 256).
15{X) (June 1). Alexander VI., demanding for three years for

the Turkish war one-twentieth (see 1472) of Jewish

property throughout the world (V. R. 1. 28, 126).
1524 (April 7). Clement VII. Issues bull in favor of Maranos

(V. R. 1.59).
IJVJl (Dec. 17). Bull Introducing Inquisition Into Portugal at

Evora, Coimbra, and Lisbon (Gratz, "Gesch." 11. 366).
1540. Paul III., granting Neo-Christlans family property except

that gained by usury, also municipal rights, but must

not marry among themselves or be buried among Jews

(V.R.I. 63).
1540 (May 12). Paul III. Issues "Licet Judaei," against blood

accusation.

1554 (Aug. 31). Julius III., In bull " Pastoris aeternl vices,"

Imposes tax of ten gold ducats on two out of the 115
synagogues In the Papal States (Rodocachi, " II Ghetto
Romano," p. 228 ; V. R. i. 145).

1555 (March 23). Paul IV., claiming ten ducats for each syna-

gogue destroyed under bull of July 12, 1555 (V. R. 1. 155).

1555 (July 12). Paul IV. Issues the " Cum nlmts absurdum " for
Jews of Rome, which renews most of the Church laws,
Including the order to wear the yellow hat and veil, not
to hold any real property (to be sold within six months),
not to trade except in second-hand clothing, not to count
fragment* of month in reckoning interest; to sell
pledges only eighteen months after loan and to repay
surplus, to keep business books in Italian in Latin script,
to live only in specified quarters with only two gates,
not to be called " Signer," to maintain only one syna-
gogue (V.R.I. 152^-153).

1555 (Aug. 8) . Bull of Paul IV.: Jews may dispense with yellow
hat on journeys; dwell outside ghettos when the latter
are crowded ; acquire property outside ghettos to extent
of 1,500 gold ducats ; Jews of Rome are released from
unpaid taxes on payment of 1,500 scuti; Jews may have
shops outside ghetto ; rents in ghettos may not be raised
(V.R.i. 161-162).

1567 (Jan. 19). Bull of PlusV.. "Cum nos nuper," orders Jews
to sell all property in Papal States (V. R. 1. 164).

1569 (Feb. 26). Bull of Pius V., " Hebraornm gens," expels
Jews from the Papal States, except Rome and Ancona, In
punishment for their crimes and "magic" vV. R. i. 168).

1581 (March 30). Bull " Multos adhuc ex Christianis " renews
Church law against Jewish physicians (V. R. i. 174).

1581 (Junel). Gregory XIII. issues the "Antiqua Judseorum
improbitas," giving jurisdiction over Jews of Rome to
Inquisition in cases of blasphemy, protection of heretics,
possession of forbidden works, employment of Christian
servants (V. R. 1. 1T4).

1584 (Sept. 1). Bull "Sancta mater ecclesia" orders 150 Jews
(100 Jews, 50 Jewesses) to attend weekly eonversionist
sermons (Zunz, "S. P." p. 339; Jost, "Gesch. der Is-
raeliten," iii. 210; V. R. 1. 173).

1586 (Oct. 22). Bull of Slxtus V., favorable to Jews (Gratz,

"Gesch." Ix. 482).

1587 (June 4). Slxtus V., granting Maglno di Gabriel of Venice

the monopoly of silk-manufacture in Papal States for
sixty years, and ordering Ave mulberry-trees to be
planted in^very rubbio of land (V. R. i. 181).

1.592 (Feb. 28). Bull of Clement VIII., "Cum saepe accldere."
forbidding Jews to deal In new commodities (V. R. i.
184).

1593 (March 8). Bull of Clement VIII., in favor of Turkish
Jews (Gratz, "Gesch." ix. 486).

1004 (Aug. 23). Bull of Clement VIII., in favor of Portuguese
Maranos (Gratz, "Gesch." ix. .500).

IfllO (Aug. 7). Paul v., " Exponi nobis nuper fecistis," regu-
lates dowries of Roman Jews {V. R. i. 196).

1658 (Nov. 15). Alexander Vll., in bull "Ad ea per quae," orders
Roman Jews to pay rent even for unoccupied houses
in ghetto, because Jews would not hire houses from
which Jews had been evicted (V. R. i. 21.5).

1674 (Oct. 3) . Clement X., suspending operations of Portuguese
Inquisition against Maranos (Gratz, "Gesch." x. 276;
V. R. 1. 223).

1679 (May 27). Innocent XI. suspends grand inquisitor of Por-
tugal on account of his treatment of Maranos (Gratz.
"Gesch." X. 279).
X.— 9

1747

(Feb. 28). Bull " Postremo mense superlorte anni " of
Benedict XIV. confirms decision of Roman Curia of Oct.
22, 1.597, that a Jewish child, once baptized, even against
canonical law, must be brought up under Christian In-
fluences (V. R. 1. 242-245; Jost, "Gesch." xl. 2.56 n.).

POPPiEA SABINA: ^yiistress and, after 62
C.E.,8econd wife of the emperor Nero; died 65. She
had a certain predilection for Judaism, and is diar-
acterized by Jo.sephiis (" Ant." xx. 8, § 11; "Vila,"
§ 3) &s 6eoae0^i ("religious"). Some Jews, such as
tiie actor Amtvros, were well received at court,
and Poppfea was always ready to second Jewish pe-
titions before the emperor. In 64 Josephus went to
Rome to obtain the liberation of some priests related
to him who liad been taken captive to that city for
some minor offense. With the help of Alityros, Jo-
sephus succeeded in gaining the intercession of the
empress, and returned home with his friends, Ijcar-
ing rich gifts with him.

When King Agrippa added a tower to the ancient
palace of the Ilasmoneans, at Jerusalem, that he
might overlook the city and the Temple and watch
the ceremonial in the sanctuary, the priests cut nfT
his view by a high wall. He then appealed to the
procurator Festus, but a Jewish delegation sent to
Rome succeeded through Poppsea's intercession in
having the c